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JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

MKW  YORK   •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


PBEPABED  ESPECIALLY  FOR  THE  mPORMATION 

'  AND  USE  OF 

BUSINESS  MEN,  NORMAL  SCHOOLS,  TEACHERS'  COLLEGES, 

PUBLIC    SCHOOL   TEACHERS,    AND    EMPLOYEES    OF 

THE  UNITED  STATES  EMPLOYMENT  SERVICE 


BY 
ANNA   Y.   REED,   Ph.D. 

ASSISTED    BY 

WILSON   WOELPPER 


Neto  gorft 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1920 

All  righU  rettrvtd 


COFTBISHT,    1920, 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  «lectrotyped.    Published  October,  iQSOt 


NottoooB  PrfSB 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


i- 


TO 
WILLIAM  EDWIN  HALL 

PRESIDENT  boys'  CLUB  FEDERATION  TO 
WHOSE  FORESIGHT  AND  INITIATIVK  THE 
JUNIOR  DIVISION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
BMFLOYUBNT     SERVICE     OWES     ITS     ORIGIN 

AND 
TO 

JOHN   B.   DENSMORE 

DIRECTOR  GENERAL  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
EMPLOYMENT  SERVICE  TO  WHOSE  SUPPORT 
AND  ENCOURAGEMENT  IT  OWES  ITS  OPPOR- 
TUNITY TO  DEVELOP  ALONG  SCIENTIFIC  AND 
PROGRESSIVE  LINES 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

'>  The  purpose  of  this  book  is  definite  —  to  respond  to  an 
increasing  demand  for  verified  data  on  the  status  of  voca- 
tional guidance  and  to  indicate  the  aim,  policy,  and 
methods  of  the  national  organization  which  has  been 
instituted  to  guide  and  assist  local  agencies  in  this  phase 
of  community  service. 

The  Junior  Division  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service  is  a  new  governmental  agency.  It  was  instituted 
to  aid  in  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  of  reconstruction 
—  the  replacement  in  school  or  in  industry  of  its  young 
war  workers.  The  call  came  suddenly.  The  country 
faced  facts,  not  theories.  There  were  probably  less  than 
a  dozen  persons  in  the  United  States  who  had  given  serious, 
concerted  study  to  the  junior  problem  —  it  had  been  an 
avocation  for  many,  a  vocation  for  few. 

From  its  very  inception  the  Division  has  been  called 
upon  to  furnish  printed  material  indicating  the  status  and 
the  field  of  vocational  guidance,  the  relation  of  placement 
to  guidance,of  educational  guidance  to  vocational  guidance, 
and  of  employment  supervision  to  both  counseUng  and 
education.  There  has  been  a  constant  demand  that  the 
aim  of  the  Division  be  definitely  defined  and  that  methods 
by  which  its  aim  might  be  realized  be  suggested.  Lack 
of  printed  matter  has  been  a  handicap  to  the  development 
of  the  service,  and  the  Division  itself,  after  ascertaining 
that  outside  parties  could  not  be  secured  for  the  task, 
has  undertaken  to  supply  this  need. 

Sources  of  information  are  indicated  in  the  context. 
No  new  investigation  has  been  conducted  for  this  publica- 

vii 


Viii  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

tion.  Material  for  a  similar  publication  had  been  collected 
and  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript  was  about  to  be 
undertaken  when  the  call  to  national  service  was  received. 
A  year  of  experience  with  national  administrative  prob- 
lems, a  year  of  close  association  with  problems  incidental 
to  types  of  placements  passing  through  adult  employment 
offices,  and  a  year  of  association  with  men  who  came  from 
the  business  world  in  response  to  war  demands  has  crys- 
tallized the  problem,  broadened  my  vision,  confirmed  or 
altered  some  of  my  earlier  conclusions,  and  greatly  in- 
creased my  interest  in  the  work  an^'my  beUef  that  ulti- 
mately vocational  guidance  and  placement  will  become  a 
national  function  for  all  wage  earners.] 

Material  for  Part  I  is  based  upon  personal  observation 
supported  by  sufficient  printed  data  to  permit  each  reader 
to  test  for  himself  the  accuracy  of  its  statements.  Part  II 
is,  of  a  necessity,  based  almost  entirely  upon  personal 
observations  and  experience,  not  personal  observation 
and  experience  of  the  author  alone  but  personal  observation 
and  experience  of  that  small  group  of  students  with  whom 
it  has  been  my  privilege  to  be  associated  and  whom, 
although  other  interests  claim  their  first  attention,  I  am 
pleased  to  consider  advisers  and  co-workers  in  this  national 
service. 

The  ultimate  value  of  the  conclusions  drawn  from  these 
facts  depends  upon  their  practicability  when  tested  by  many 
offices  manned  by  students  who  can  alter  generalizations  to 
meet  specific  conditions  and  report  the  results  for  the  scientific 
advancement  of  employment  methods. 

Methods  employed  in  preparing  material  for  presenta- 
tion have  been  far  from  satisfactory  to  the  author  and 
hence  I  could  hardly  claim  for  them,  or  expect  to  receive, 
the  indorsement  of  trained  research  workers.  Scientific 
methods  of  presentation,  as  well  as  scientific  methods 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  IX 

of  securing  data,  require  both  continuity  of  study  and 
thought,  and  freedom  from  interruptions  and  diversions. 
This  is  impossible  for  officials  whose  duties  are  largely 
administrative.  The  material  is  presented  in  the  hope 
that  defects  in  presentation  will  be  overlooked  and  that  it 
may  serve  a  useful  purpose  until  such  time  as  a  larger  and 
better  trained  corps  permits  editorial  work  on  a  literary 
and  scientific  basis  which  will  meet  all  the  requirements  of 
research. 

It  has,  at  times,  been  difficult  to  preserve  an  absolutely 
logical  arrangement  and  at  the  same  time  introduce  state- 
ments and  facts  where  they  appeared  to  be  most  effective. 
In  such  cases  arrangement  has  been  sacrificed  to  effective- 
ness. 

Considerable  prominence  has  been  given  to  decentral- 
ized vocational  guidance  efforts  and  to  facts  relating  to  the 
failure  of  educational  systems  to  function  in  this  direction. 
This  has  been  done  from  a  constructive  point  of  view,  in 
the  hope  that  definite  progress  would  result  from  the 
revelation  of  the  extent  and  the  causes  of  failure. 

Footnotes  have  been  introduced  rather  freely  to  indicate 
important  related  topics  and  to  furnish  additional  infor- 
mation. In  this  way  the  same  publication  is  made  to 
serve  the  purpose  of  students  who  seek  sufficient  informa- 
tion to  permit  them  to  draw  their  own  conclusions,  or  at 
least  to  test  the  validity  of  those  presented,  as  well  as 
of  the  casual  or  general  reader  who  is  content  to  accept 
statements  at  their  face  value.  No  general  bibliography 
has  been  included.  The  bibliographies  mentioned  on 
page  36  are  as  complete  as  is  possible  to  date,  and  repeti- 
tion is  useless.  Footnotes  contain  references  which  the 
author  has  found  most  helpful  and  which  are  recommended 
for  limited  study. 

To  my  co-workers  in  the  United  States  Employment 


X  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

Service  and  to  the  office  force  which  has  assisted  me  I 
express  my  thanks  and  appreciation.  For  my  co-workers 
outside  of  the  Service,  to  whom  I  have  long  been  bound 
by  community  of  interest  in  what  has,  at  times,  seemed 
to  be  a  hopeless  cause,  and  who  have  contributed  and  are 
contributing  to  the  success  of  the  work  a  type  of  ability 
not  otherwise  at  our  command,  and  for  all  those  who  have 
read  this  manuscript  and  contributed  to  its  preparation  I 
bespeak  the  appreciation  of  the  public  and  offer  them  my 
own.  Finally  I  make  no  effort  to  enumerate  the  many 
ways  in  which  I  am  under  obligation  for  assistance  and 
encouragement  to  Mr.  Wilson  Woelpper,  Director  of 
Planning  and  Statistics,  my  colleague  in  developing  the 
Junior  Division,  and  my  associate  in  the  preparation  of 
this  publication.  If  any  reader  finds  within  its  pages* 
suggestions  which  assist  him  to  help  boys  and  girls  in 
making  the  right  start  on  fife's  journey,  I  trust  that  each 
one  of  these  contributors  may  find  it  sufficient  reward. 

In  dedicating  this  book  to  William  E.  Hall  and  to 
John  B.  Densmore,  I  have  been  influenced  by  two  facts: 
(1)  My  personal  gratitude  to  the  two  men  who,  one  at 
great  personal  sacrifice,  the  other  under  difficulties  of 
various  kinds  which  I  may  at  times  appear  to  have  dis- 
counted, have  made  it  possible  to  undertake  this  vital 
social-economic  study,  to  so  conduct  it  that  we  need  offer 
no  apology  for  our  standards  or  poficies  and  who  have  so 
protected  us  in  our  work  that  we  have  been  enabled  to 
-develop  a  type  of  leadership  not  often  encouraged,  and 
frequently  discouraged,  in  pubfic  undertakings;  (2)  Be- 
cause, in  the  interests  of  historical  accuracy,  it  is  right 
that  the  names  of  the  two  men  who  originated  and  de- 
fended the  Division  until  the  PubUc  had  time  to  appreciate 
its  importance  shall  stand  alone  on  the  pages  of  its  first 
pubfication. 


CONTENTS 
PART  I 

THE   PROBLEM   AND   THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   VOCA- 
TIONAL GUIDANCE   AND   PLACEMENT 

PAOB 

Chapter  I.     Maqnitttde  of  the  Problem     ...        3 

1.  Quantitative  analysis 4 

2.  Qualitative  analysis   .......         8 

Chapter  II.     Efforts    to    Solve    the    Employment 

Problem 34 

1.  Philanthropic  agencies        ......  36 

2.  Educational  agencies 37 

3.  Business  organizations 56 

4.  Public  employment  offices 57 

5.  Federal  government 61 

PART  II 

FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  VOCATIONAL 
GUIDANCE   AND   PLACEMENT 


Chapter  III.     Educational  Guidance  , 

1.  In  analyzing  and  developing  character 

2.  In  selecting  academic  courses 

3.  Through  occupational  information  courses 

4.  In  selecting  vocational  courses  . 

5.  In  salesmanship  of  ability  and  skill    . 

6.  In  factors  which  make  for  success 


69 

74 
78 
80 
83 
84 
89 


Chapter  IV.     Functions  and  Methods  op  Placement  91 

1.  Character  of  public  employment  offices     ...  92 

2.  Requirements  for  success  ......  94 

A.  Trained  personnel 94 

xi 


xu 


CONTENTS 


(2) 
(3) 


B.  Satisfactory  location  and  equipment 
(1)  Office  location 

The  reception  room 

The  consultation  room  . 

a.  The  desk  and  its  equipment 

h.  Files  and  filing  systems 

(4)  The  testing  laboratory   . 

(5)  The  workroom 

(6)  The  day's  work 

Chapter   V.     Functions    of    a  Junior    Employment 
Office  ..... 


Marketing  the  product  of  the  public  schools 
Pooling  the  entire  junior  labor  supply  and  demand 

A.  Pooling  the  junior  labor  supply    . 

(1)  and  (2)  Juvenile  workers  and  transfers  . 

(3)  Permanent  workers  directly  from  school 

(4)  Replacements  ..... 

B.  Pooling  the  junior  labor  demand  . 
Distributing  the  junior  supply  and  demand 

A.  The  interview 

(1)  With  the  employer 

(2)  With  the  applicant 

B.  The  referral 

C.  The  placement 

D.  Employment  supervision,  or  follow-up 


PAGE 

101 
101 
104 
105 
105 
106 
108 
109 
110 


112 
113 
126 
126 
126 
127 
128 
129 
131 
131 
131 
135 
145 
147 
149 


PART   I 

THE  PROBLEM  AND  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF 
VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  AND  PLACEMENT 


THE  BOY  ON  THE  FENCE  i 

^'■JJpon  whose  selection  and  successful  pursuit  of  avocation  depends 
the  welfare  of  the  industrial  and  political  future  of  the  world/^ 


*  We  are  permitted  to  use  this  cut  through  the  courtesy  of 
the  Guy  M.  Jones  Company  of  Indianapolis.  It  appeared  in 
"  Trade  Foundations  "  published  by  that  Company  in  1919. 


JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

CHAPTER  I 
MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

The  best  method  of  preparing  our  young  people  for 
occupational  life  is  attracting  the  increasing  interest  of 
progressive  business  men,  demanding  more  serious  atten- 
tion from  educators,  and  challenging  the  best  pubUc 
thought  of  the  day.  The  public  schools  are  continually 
assuming  greater  responsibility  for  the  preparation  of 
satisfied  and  satisfactory  employees.  The  business  world 
is  becoming  willing  and  even  eager  to  contribute  voca- 
tional information  for  school  curricula  and  for  the  use  of 
employment  bureaus,  and  young  people  themselves  are 
beginning  to  realize  that  a  job  is  not  a  position  and  that 
real  service  can  be  measured  neither  by  wages  nor  by  the 
clock.  Here  and  there  a  Voice  in  the  Wilderness  is  call- 
ing for  employment  supervision  as  a  substitute  for  school- 
room education  for  boys  and  girls  who  enter  occupations 
in  which  vocational  school  training  cannot  be  substituted 
for  training  in  employment,  or  for  those  who  enter  juvenile 
occupations  from  which,  without  mature  assistance,  they 
find  it  diflBcult  to  advance. 

The  time  has  come  for  employer,  educator,  parent,  and 
public  to  unite  in  intelligent  analyzation  of  the  problem 
of  its  boys  on  the  fence,  and  to  formulate  some  plan  for 
aiding  them  in  the  solution  of  their  many  problems. 

The  problem  of  junior  wage  earners  has  both  a  quanti- 
tative and  a  qualitative  aspect.    When  we  attempt  to 

3 


4  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

analyze  it,  we  find  ourselves  facing  a  series  of  questions, 
all  of  which  may  be  summed  up  in  —  How  many  boys 
and  Rirls  arc  there  on  the  fence?  What  kind  of  boys 
and  girls  are  they? 

1.     QUANTITATIVE   ANALYSIS 

The  latest  authoritative  information  relative  to  the 
quantitative  phase  of  the  problem  of  junior  guidance 
and  placement  is  found  in  the  Census  of  1910,  the  Report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1919,  the  Report 
of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  1919,  and 
local  educational  and  industrial  data.  The  census  of 
1920  now  in  progress  will  doubtless  increase  our  statistics 
by  at  least  10  to  15  per  cent. 

If  the  scope  of  our  problem  be  limited  to  w^age-eaming 
boys  and  girls,  the  census  of  1910  gives  us  the  following 
facts  —  51 .3  -per  cent  of  our  total  hoy  and  girl  population 
from  14  to  21  years  of  age  is  in  wage-earning  occupations. 

Group  I  indicates  that  out  of  a  total  population  of 
3,569,347  boys  and  girls  14  and  15  years  of  age,  1,094,249 
are  wage  earners.  IVIany  of  these,  because  of  their  age 
and  educational  status,  because  of  the  fact  that  they  are 
wage  earners,  and  because  of  the  conditions  which  prevail 
in  modern  industry,  are  habitually  "on  the  fence."  ^ 
Tliis  group  of  boys  and  girls  may  legitimately  be  called 

•  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  in  1917  (p.  7)  estimated  that 
1,000,000  14-  and  15-year-old  boys  and  girls  left  school  every  year  to  become  wage 
earners.  This  estimate  does  not  include  the  number  under  14  who  are  permitted  to 
become  wage  earners  under  the  laws  of  some  of  our  states.  He  also  estimated  that 
approximately  2,000,000  school  children  arrive  at  a  given  age  annually.  For  1915 
he  estimated  that  half  of  the  16-year-old3  had  left  school  in  that  year  or  earlier, 
two  thirds  of  the  17-year-olds,  and  three  fourths  of  the  IS-year-olds.  A  still  higher 
estimate  for  school  elimination  is  made  by  Leonard  P.  Ajtcs  in  "Laggards  in  Our 
Schools"  :  "It  is  safe  to  count  on  ten  per  cent  of  the  children  leaving  on  reaching 
the  age  of  thirteen,  forty  per  cent  by  the  time  they  are  fourteen,  and  fifty  per  cent 
of  the  remainder  at  fifteen,  and  again  fifty  per  cent  of  the  remainder  at  the  age  of 
Bizteen,"  p.  34. 


MAGNITUDE   OF  THE  PROBLEM 


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1-1 

6  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

"child"  or  "juvenile"  wage  earners,  although  the  appli- 
cation of  the  term  "child"  is  strenuously  objected  to  by- 
boys  and  girls  who  are  over  14  years  of  age.^ 

In  Group  2,  composed  of  9,197,000  boys  and  girls  16 
to  20  years  of  age,  we  find  5,463,223  wage  earners.  Al- 
though there  is  no  justification  for  classifying  this  group 
as  "child"  wage  earners,  and  although  we  are  forced  to 
admit  that  in  many  cases  the  occupational  world  is  able 
to  offer  them  better  opportunities  for  development  than 
is  the  school,  still  we  know  from  observation  and  expe- 
rience that  large  numbers  of  these  boys  and  girls  are  just 
as  much  "on  the  fence"  as  are  their  younger  brothers 
and  sisters.  More  than  this,  too  often  they  are  lacking 
not  only  in  vocational  purposes  and  educational  equip- 
ment, but  they  are  actually  drifting  downward  into  the 
position  of  unemployables,  undesirables,  and  occupational 
misfits.  We  may,  in  time,  be  able  to  solve  the  problem  of 
the  "child"  wage  earner  by  vitalizing  the  school  curric- 
ulum and  sending  him  back  to  school,  but  we  shall  have 
to  look  to  other  than  educational  agencies  for  leadership 
in  meeting  the  needs  of  the  older  and  larger  group. 

The  field  of  the  quantitative  phase  of  our  problem  may 
be  broadened  in  one  of  two  ways :  (1)  by  including  all 
the  potential  wage  earners  at  any  given  time  compre- 
hended in  the  field  of  public  education,  or  (2)  by  including 
such  potential  wage  earners  as  are  approaching  the  age 
and  grade  when  statistics  warn  us  that  the  educational 
system  has  almost  reached  the  time  limit  during  which  it 
can  render  definite,   continuous,  and  systematic  service 

1  It  13  universally  agreed  that  the  term  "child"  may  be  legitimately  applied  to 
boys  and  girls  under  15  years  of  age,  and  after  that  age  they  should  be  considered 
young  men  and  women.  The  Children's  Bureau  states  "...  the  period  of  life 
from  birth  to  the  fifteenth  birthday  probably  coincides  as  closely  as  any  other  with 
the  years  of  childhood,"  and  again  "...  Persons  under  15  years  of  age,  the  group 
which  is  usually  thought  of  when  children  are  mentioned.  .  .  ."  "Handbook  of 
Federal  Statistics  of  Children,"  pp.  8,  10. 


MAGNITUDE   OF  THE  PROBLEM  7 

to  its  charges.  The  field  of  our  problem  from  this  broader 
point  of  view  will  be  discussed  in  detail  under  "Methods 
of  Guidance  and  Placement."  For  our  immediate  pur- 
pose it  is  sufficient  to  state  that  according  to  the  school 
census  of  1910,  17,300,204  boys  and  girls  from  5  to  20  years 
of  age  were  attending  school  and  would  therefore  be  en- 
titled to  receive  the  benefits  of  that  type  of  vocational 
guidance  which  is  essentially  educational  and  which  grad- 
ually passes  over  into  specific  occupational  guidance 
resulting  in  satisfactory  placement  at  date  of  leaving 
school.  If,  however,  we  confine  our  efforts  to  those  who 
are  in  immediate  need  of  specific  information  on  occu- 
pational life  which  leads  to  placement  within  a  short 
period  of  time  we  will  content  ourselves  with  offering  our 
services  to  school  attendants  from  14  to  20  years,  inclu- 
sive. Statistics  for  1910  show  that  5,094,678  boys  and 
girls  of  this  age  were  enrolled  in  the  pubhc  schools. 

Summary.  Numerically  the  national  problem  of  our 
wage-earning  boys  and  girls  comprises  either : 

(1)  17,300,204  boys  and  girls  5-20  years  of  age,  inclu- 
sive, who  are  potential  wage  earners,  i.e.,  attending  school, 
and  are,  therefore,  in  need  of  all  phases  of  vocational 
guidance  —  educational  guidance,  occupational  guidance, 
and  ultimately,  placement,  and  it  also  comprises  the 
6,557,472  actual  wage  earners  designated  under  Group  3,  or 

(2)  5,094,678  boys  and  girls  14-20  years  of  age,  inclu- 
sive, who  are  potential  wage  earners  in  addition  to  the 
6,557,472  actual  wage  earners  included  in  Groups  1  and 
2,1  or 

(3)  The  wage-earning  group  of  6,557,472,  or  of  7,453,448 
if  we  include  children  under  14  years  of  age. 


*  If  the  school  group  which  is  to  have  the  benefit  of  guidance  be  limited  to  the 
ages  of  14  to  20  the  wage-earning  group  comprising  the  same  ages  will  be  seen  to  be 
the  larger. 


8  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

Each  community  must  decide  for  itself  to  what  extent 
it  is  sound  economic  poUcy  to  offer  a  helping  hand  to  its 
potential  and  actual  wage  earners.  It  makes  no  differ- 
ence which  of  the  three  alternatives  may  be  chosen, 
statistics  indicate  that  even  the  narrowest  field  involves 
a  numerical  task  of  greater  magnitude  than  does  school- 
room education.  I  repeat  statistical  facts  —  61.S  per  cent 
of  our  total  boy  and  girl  population  from  I4  to  21  years  of 
age  is  in  wage-earning  occupations. 

The  importance,  the  magnitude,  and  the  nation-wide 
scope  of  this  problem  account  for  the  organization  of 
the  Junior  Division  of  the  United  States  Employ- 
ment Service  as  a  specialized  department  of  the  United 
States  Employment  Service  in  the  Department  of  Labor. 

The  volume  of  work  which  would  pass  through  a 
National  Junior  Guidance  and  Placement  Department 
compared  with  the  volume  passing  through  the  Adult 
Division  is  indicated  in  Chart  No,  1. 

As  each  locality  is  interested  in  its  own  immediate 
problem  rather  than  in  the  larger  and  more  remote  national 
problem,  charts  are  offered  for  Pittsburgh  and  Providence 
which  indicate  methods  of  analyzing  the  local  quanti- 
tative problem  involved  in  the  establishment  of  a  Junior 
Division  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service. 

2.   qualitative  analysis 

Who  are  these  six  and  a  half  milUon  boys  and  girls  who 
are  coming  from  the  schoolroom  into  the  labor  market 
in  constantly  increasing  numbers? 

(1)  Are  they  of  American  or  of  foreign  parentage? 

The  National  Child  Labor  Committee  estimates  that 
of  two  million  wage-earning  children  15  years  of  age 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 


TOTAL  WAGE  EARNERS  IN  U.  S.  1910 

38,149,254     . 


:,!'ale  -.fX 
■  ■--"""-•■'^^ 


30,091,564 


-8,067,690 


Indicatea  Workers  under  21 
"  "  over  21 


><:  7,453,448 


"Total  Men  &  Women  Workers 


'■  Total  Boys  &  Girls^ 


CHART 

Showing  Distribution  of 

Wage  Earners  in 

United  States 

(Census  1910) 


60^ 
40  ;i 

20^ 
0 

1 

Public 
Schools 

2 

Parochial 
Schools 

a 

Continua- 
tion 
Schools 

4 

Private 
Schools 

6 
No  Educa- 
tional 
Training 

5  lA^ 
Reached 
Thru  Jr. 
Division 

$150 
$125 

tioo 

$76 

$  60 

$  26 
0 

a 

5 

-be 

s 

-•J 

1 

i 
_2| 

1 

1 

LEGEND: 
1  Indicates  ^  of  Juniors  14  to  20 
D  Per  Capita  Cost 

1    H 

w   2 


Chart  showing  percentage  of  Juniors  14  to  20  in  Pittsburgh  receiving 
educational  training  relative  to  total  number  of  Juniors.  Also  cost 
per  capita. 


10 


JtJNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


and  under,  50  per  cent  are  of  American  parentage  and 
50  per  cent  of  foreign  parentage.     Ayres  ^  tells  us  that : 


City  of  Providence,  R.  I. 


PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Parochial 

Private 
School 

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Mil 

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throuttti  th» 

Elementary  i       Hi«h         1      ^^1^- 
Grades      j      School        ,        School 

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70  « 

60  5« 

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■  a   F7a   (-1 

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n 

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J 

LEGEND: 
■  Indicates  Jrs.  14  to  18  Yr. 
S          "           "     14  "  15    " 
D         "           "     16  "  18    " 

Chart  showing  percentage  of  Juniors  14  to  18,  14  to  15,  and  16  to  18 
years  of  age  attending  the  various  schools  and  the  percentage 
employed  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island. 

"The  study  of  the  bearing  of  nationality  on  school  progress  has 
been  fruitful.  In  general  there  is  little  relation  between  the  per- 
centage of  foreigners  in  the  different  cities  and  the  amount  of  re- 
tardation found  in  their  schools.  Some  of  our  most  foreign  cities 
make  very  good  records,  while  in  some  of  our  most  American  cities 
school  conditions  are  very  bad  indeed.  In  the  country  as  a  whole 
there  are  more  illiterates  proportionally  among  the  native  whites 
of  native  parents  than  among  native  whites  of  foreign  parents,  and 


'  Ayrea,  Leonard  P.,  "Laggards  in  Our  Schools,"  1909,  pp.  6,  105  fl. 


MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  PROBLEM  11 

school  attendance  is  more  general  among  the  latter  than  among  the 
former."  "Among  native  white  children  of  native  parents  44  in 
every  1000  are  ilhterate,  while  among  native  white  children  of 
foreign  parents  9  in  every  1000  are  ilhterate." 

He  concludes  that  the  public  schools  of  the  country  do 
not  reach  every  child,  but  that  in  the  country  as  a  whole 
they  reach  the  child  of  the  foreigner  more  generally  than 
of  the  native  born. 

According  to  recent  figures  given  out  by  the  Children's 
Bureau,  American  children  in  surprising  numbers  are 
growing  up  illiterate.  Statistics  covering  five  states  in 
which  large  numbers  of  children  are  employed  indicate 
that  out  of  19,696  children  between  14  and  16  years  of 
age  more  than  one  fourth  could  not  read  or  write  their 
names  legibly;  nearly  10  per  cent  had  not  advanced 
beyond  the  first  school  grade ;  more  than  half  were  in  the 
fourth  grade  and  lower  when  they  left,  and  only  about 
3  per  cent  had  gone  as  far  as  the  eighth  grade.^ 

Study  of  school  records  of  children  of  foreign  parentage 
does  not  permit  the  conclusion  that  they  are  either 
inferior  or  superior  to  the  children  of  native  born  in 
the  matter  of  scholarship.  Different  nationalities  differ 
radically  as  to  ability  in  school  work. 

(2)  What  is  their  home  environment  f 

The  influence  of  the  home  has  long  been  recognized  as 
one  of  the  most  potent  factors  in  determining  the  develop- 
ment, invoking  the  interest,  and  controlling  the  activities 
of  children.  The  economic  condition  of  the  home  is  not, 
however,  the  strong  factor  that  it  has  usually  been  sup- 
posed to  be  in  drawing  children  from  the  school  into  the 
wage-earning  world.     Several  studies  are  available  which 

'  United  States  Children's  Bureau,  7th  Annual  Report,  1919.  "Literacy  of 
I  Children  Certificated,"  pp.  23-24. 


12  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

indicate  that  not  over  50  per  cent  of  the  young  wage 
earners  are  in  industry  because  of  economic  pressure.^ 
In  moral  and  social  influence  my  own  observation  and 
study  has  indicated  that  the  home  is  the  strongest  factor 
in  determining  a  boy's  standards  and  ideals  and  that  it 
is  the  mother's  influence  which  predominates  in  shaping 
his  choice.^ 

(3)  What  was  their  educational  status  when  they  left 
school ? 

"Much  statistical  information  has  been  collected  to  prove  that 
the  great  majority  of  pupils  are  eliminated  from  school  at  fourteen 
years  of  age  prior  to  having  reached  the  seventh  grade.  In  states 
where  literacy  tests  are  prereqmsite  to  employment  certification, 
it  is  often  with  great  difficulty  that  the  barest  education  require- 
ments can  be  met.  Many  children  have  not  been  able  to  acquire 
the  fundamental  tools  of  education;  many  leave  school  before 
reaching  the  grades  in  which  standards  of  citizenship  are  emphasized. 
The  general  tendency  of  the  American  city  school  systems  is  to 
carry  all  of  the  children  through  the  fifth  grade,  half  of  them  to 
the  final  elementary  grade,  and  one  in  ten  to  the  final  year  of  the 
high  school."  ' 

(4)  To  what  extent  do  these  children  leave  the  public 
schools  branded  as  ^' failure^'  ? 

As  a  generalization,  one  is  safe  in  assuming  that  50  per 
cent  of  the  pupils  who  close  their  school  accounts  annually 
are,  from  the  narrow  academic  viewpoint  of  the  average 
educator,  "failures,"  or  would  be  so  ranked  on  the  school 

»  Hiatt,  James  S.,  "The  Child,  the  School,  and  the  Job,"  Philadelphia,  1912,  p.  4. 
Ryan,  W.  Carson,  "Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Public  Schools,"  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  191S,  No.  24,  p.  41. 

'  Gilson,  Mary  B.,  "The  Relations  of  Home  Conditions  to  Industrial  EflBciency," 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Annals,  May,  1916. 

Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Newsboy  Service,"  World  Book  Co.,  1917,  pp.  76-79. 

Chicago,  Dept.  of  Public  Welfare,  Bulletin,  1919,  contains  very  important  con- 
clusions on  family  influence  as  a  factor  in  recidivism. 

'  Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  "Laggards  in  Our  Schools,"  p.  65. 

A  study  now  being  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  indicates  an  increase  in 
high  school  attendance. 


MAGNITUDE   OF  THE  PROBLEM  13 

records  had  they  remained  in  school  long  enough  to  receive 
their  final  rating.  The  waste  product  of  our  educational 
machinery  is  tremendous.  Business  men  who  discover 
their  plants  to  be  branding  as  "imperfect"  or  as  "waste" 
50  per  cent  of  their  product  seek  the  cause  and  provide 
an  immediate  remedy  or  admit  their  failure  and  go  out 
of  business.  Changing  the  school  army  of  "failure" 
into  an  army  of  "success"  has  been  a  continuous  demand 
on  American  education  for  years.  There  is  as  yet  little 
tangible  progress  to  report.  The  fact  that  so  many  chil- 
dren are  branded  "failure"  when  after  events  prove 
clearly  that  they  are  often  possessed  of  unusual  ability 
judged  by  the  practical  standards  of  the  business  world 
is  bad  enough  in  itself.  When,  however,  we  consider 
the  influence  upon  the  individual  of  being  constantly 
reminded  of  his  shortcomings,  when  we  realize  that  he 
is  shoved  out  into  the  world  prepared  to  admit  that  he  is 
a  failure  and  anticipating  that  he  will  be  so  considered 
by  others,  the  rank  social  injustice  and  the  great  economic 
danger  cannot  be  overestimated,     O'Brien  warns  us  that : 

"The  pupil  who  accumulates  failures  may  soon  cease  to  be  alive 
and  active ;  he  is  in  danger  of  acquiring  a  conforming  attitude  of 
tolerance  toward  the  experience  of  being  a  failure.  .  .  .  Most  of 
the  failing  pupils  lack  neither  the  ability  nor  earnestness.  .  .  ." 

With  reference  to  the  large  number  of  school  "repeat- 
ers" he  states  that  33  §  per  cent  of  the  repeated  grades 
are  repeated  failures,  which  tends  to  fix  more  permanently 
the  habit  and  attitude  of  failing  and  bequeaths  to  society 
the  fruits  of  such  maladjustments  which  cannot  fail  to 
function  frequently  and  seriously  in  the  production  of 
industrial  dissatisfaction  and  misfits  later  in  hfe.^ 

'  Francis  P.  O'Brien,  "High  School  Failures." 

Vocational  Survey  of  Minneapolia,  published  by  the  Minneapolis  Teachers'  Club, 
1913.  p.  69 


14  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

In  McClwre's  magazine  for  April,  1913,  there  is  a  story 
of  500  factory  children  who  were  interviewed  personally 
regarding  their  interest  in  school  and  in  employment. 
When  asked  how  many  would  prefer  school  to  the  factory 
provided  there  were  money  in  abundance  in  the  home,  412 
out  of  500  expressed  a  preference  for  the  factory.  Reasons 
for  such  preference  are  full  of  significance  for  education. 
I  quote  but  one : 

"When  you  works  a  whole  month  at  school,  the  teacher  she  gives 
you  a  card  to  take  home  that  says  how  you  ain't  any  good."  ^ 

In  1914  Prof.  F.  M.  Leavitt,  speaking  of  the  change 
which  was  coming  about  in  progressive  school  systems, 
stated : 

"...  the  fundamental  philosophy  of  the  movement  is  based  on 
a  frank  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  school  has  too  frequently 
taught  children  how  to  Jail,  and  has  convinced  them  that  'education' 
was  something  in  which  they  could  never  have  any  possible  interest 
because  it  bore  no  relation  to  any  hfe  of  which  they  had  any  con- 
ception. It  further  recognizes  that  the  chief  duty  of  the  pubhc 
schools  is  to  develop  in  all  children,  especially  in  those  who  must 
soon  face  the  problem  of  self-support,  the  habit  of  successful  effort."  ^ 

Few  would  be  willing  to  admit  that  the  pubhc  schools 
are  a  failure,  many  are  forced  to  admit  that  the  facts 
show  that  they  are  allowing  far  too  many  pupils  to  leave 
school  branded  "failure." 

(5)  Why,  in  a  country  which  offers  free  public  education 
to  all  under  21  years  of  age,  does  so  large  a  group  fail  to  take 
advantage  of  the  educational  facilities  at  its  command  ? 

We  live  in  a  country  which  prides  itself  on  offering  free 
pubhc  education  to  every  boy  and  girl  under  21,  and 

>  Todd,  Helen  M.,  "Why  Children  Work.     The  Children's  Answer." 

'  Leavitt,  Frank  M.,  "Cooperation  of  the  Schools  in  Reducing  Child  Labor," 

address  before  National  Child  Labor  Committee,  March  19,  1914.     In  Vocational 

Ediication,  May,  1914. 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  15. 

through  its  state  colleges,  state  universities,  and  evening 
schools  to  many  who  are  over  21.  In  theory  our  plan 
is  100  per  cent  perfect.  In  practice  its  opportunity  for 
efl&ciency  is  reduced  50  per  cent  —  a  reduction  which  would 
be  much  greater  were  it  not  for  our  compulsory  attendance 
laws.  Why?  For  many  reasons.  Each  eliminated  pupil 
offers  a  different  problem,  or  a  series  of  different  problems. 
One  boy  or  girl  may  lack  native  ability,  another  may  be 
physically  handicapped ;  one  may  be  keenly  sensitive 
to  the  rank  of  "failure,"  the  other  may  be  too  indifferent 
to  care  what  estimate  is  put  upon  his  abiHty;  economic 
pressure  may  be  the  dominant  factor  influencing  one 
pupil,  general  dissatisfaction  with  school  the  dominant 
factor  influencing  another.  Our  educational  system  has 
not  yet  learned  to  deal  with  its  charges  as  individuals. 
Pupils  who  for  any  reason  do  not  fit  into  "the  system" 
are  eliminated.^  It  is  the  duty  of  employment  advisers 
to  find  out  to  what  extent  the  school  has  discovered  the 
individual  problem  of  each  applicant  and  dealt  with  it. 
If  the  type  of  personal  service  which  is  the  most  essential 
element  in  vocational  guidance  has  not  been  offered  by 
educational  agencies  then  it  is  the  duty  of  counselors  to 
see  that  it  is  suppUed  at  once  by  the  employment  service. 
O'Brien  quotes  a  very  significant  remark : 

"It  is  not  unrecognized  that  the  school  has  many  notable  failures 
to  indicate  how  even  the  fittest  do  not  sometimes  survive  the  school 
routine." 

Gulick  says  that  children  quit  because  they  are  humili- 
ated, their  confidence  in  their  own  ability  is  destroyed, 
and  the  soul-destroying  conviction  is  ground  into  them 

»  "Lock-Step  Schooling  and  a  Remedy,"  San  Francisco,  State  Normal  School, 
1913.  This  should  be  read  by  every  student  who  desires  to  know  the  evils  of  our 
"class  system"  and  the  advantages  of  an  "individual  system." 


I 

16  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

that  they  are  "failures,"  "stupid,"  "dumb,"  or  "back- 
ward." 1 

In  general  we  may  conclude  that  there  are  two  main 
reasons  why  pupils  do  not  care  to  take  advantage  of  the 
maximum  of  educational  opportunity :  First,  the  edu- 
cation which  we  offer  is  too  limited  in  kind  to  appeal  to 
the  majority  of  youth.  It  does  not  encourage  initiative, 
imagination,  or  independence,  nor  does  it  indicate  to 
pupils  specific  ways  in  which  it  is  vitally  connected  with 
practical  Ufe.  The  hours  during  which  it  may  be  secured 
are  too  arbitrary  and  in  the  main  it  has  as  yet  recognized 
but  one  avenue  through  which  it  may  be  secured  —  the 
schoolroom.  Discontent  with  the  material  and  method 
of  education  is  one  great  cause  of  pupil  elimination. 
Some  five  or  six  years  ago  the  writer  made  a  careful  study 
of  school  elimination  in  comparison  with  industrial  elimi- 
nation. It  was  found  that  50  per  cent  of  school  elimina- 
tion was  due  to  "dissatisfaction"  and  that  approximately 
the  same  per  cent  of  youthful  workers  were  either  un- 
employed or  dissatisfied  with  their  positions.  Conclusions 
at  that  time  were  that  — 

"In  many  cases  'dissatisfaction'  was  not  based  on  legitimate 
criticism.  The  positions  were  desirable,  the  conditions  of  service 
favorable,  the  prospect  of  permanency  good,  and  remuneration  all 
that  could  be  expected  considering  education,  native  ability,  and 
personality."  ' 

Just  as  the  hahit  of  failure  acquired  in  the  schoolroom 
is  bound  to  be  a  handicap  in  occupational  hfe,  so  also  is 
the  hahit  of  discontent  bound  to  be  a  second  liability  in 
the  business  world.     Fifty  per  cent  of  failure  and  dis- 

>  GuHck,  Luther  D.,  "Why  250,000  Children  Quit  School,"  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion, Department  of  Child  Hygiene,  Bulletin  77,  p.  4. 

'Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Seattle  Children  in  School  and  Industry,"  Seattle,  Board  of 
Education,  1915,  p.  51. 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  17 

content  carried  from  the  schools  into  industry  means 
frequent  changes  in  positions,  the  growth  of  pessimism, 
chronic  failure  and  discontent,  unemployment,  undesir- 
ables, social  unrest,  and  possibly  anarchy.  The  second 
main  cause  of  eUmination  is  best  explained  by  Dr.  Gulick  : 

"A  change  ought  to  and  does  come  over  children  at  that  time 
(14  years)  which  demands  a  less  materialistic  environment  than 
that  of  the  elementary  school.  They  are  gripped  by  a  new  spirit 
of  energy  and  independence  which  demands  either  the  larger  liberty 
of  the  high  school  or  the  obligations  of  business.  Even  the  best  of 
children  are  restless  and  unsuited  in  the  elementary  school  after 
fourteen.  With  a  wonderful  uniformity  the  average  age  of  leaving 
school  ranges  from  14  to  15  all  over  the  country.  This  is  true 
whether  they  have  graduated  or  not,  whether  they  are  native- 
born  or  foreign-born,  white  or  black ;  whether  the  course  of  study 
is  easy  or  hard,  or  even  whether  the  teachers  and  the  teaching 
equipment  are  good  or  bad.  It  is  a  great  biological  fact  with 
which  we  are  dealing.  When  the  wings  of  the  nestling  are  grown 
it  leaves  the  nest.  The  same  kind  of  force  drives  children  out  of 
the  elementary  school  soon  after  they  are  fourteen.  (The  elementary 
form  of  school  is  suited  to  children  but  not  to  adolescents^  This  is 
the  first  reason  why  children  drop  out  of  school  at  fourteen,  no 
matter  in  what  grade  or  part  of  the  coimtry  they  are."  ^ 

School  elimination  is  primarily  a  problem  for  school 
administration,  irrespective  of  where  the  primary  respon- 
sibility may  rest ;  it  is  a  problem  which  must  be  under- 
stood in  all  of  its  phases  by  those  who  expect  to  render 
satisfactory  employment  service.  It  is  easy  to  criticize 
the  teacher  but  not  easy  to  fill  her  place  more  efficiently. 
The  small  degree  of  success  yet  attained  by  employment 
advisers  should  lead  us  to  avoid  destructive  criticism  of 
other  agencies  which  are  dealing  with  similar  problems 
and  should  warn  us  that  there  can  be  no  ultimate  success 
except  through  Cooperation. 

>  Gulick.  Luther  D.,  "Why  250,000  Children  Quit  School,"  pp.  10-11. 
C 


18  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

(6)  What  percentage  of  the  group  is  pursuing  continuation 
school  courses  ? 

By  choice  or  under  compulsion?  If  the  latter,  let  us 
remember  that  legislation  may  compel  the  body  and  fail 
utterly  to  compel  the  mind.  There  is  reason  to  suppose 
that,  in  the  name  of  compulsory  education,  we  have 
"educated"  many  "intellectual  hoboes"  who  are  even 
more  dangerous  to  the  welfare  of  society  than  are  "indus- 
trial hoboes"  and  ilHterates  whom  we  have  failed  to 
"educate." 

(7)  What  are  their  ideas  as  to  the  purpose  and  benefits 
of  continuation  classes  and  what  educaiional  guidance  has 
been  at  their  command  in  the  selection  of  such  classes  ? 

Continuation  schools  have  been  established  by  law  in 
twenty-five  states.^  In  the  near  future  they  will  probably 
be  a  recognized  factor  in  every  state  system  of  education. 
Their  uniform  purpose  is  increase  in  general  education, 
in  civic  intelligence,  and  in  vocational  knowledge  and 
occupational  efficiency.  They  were  instituted  to  deal 
with  the  type  of  pupil  who,  for  one  reason  or  another,  is 
eHminated  from  the  elementary  system  at  fourteen  years 
of  age  without  sufficient  general  education  to  prevent  the 
waste  of  the  little  already  acquired ;  too  young  to  enter 
apprenticeship,  although  not  too  young  to  enter  juvenile 
occupations,  but  too  immature  of  mind  to  grasp  the 
fundamentals  upon  which  good  citizenship  rests.  Ap- 
proximately two  milHon  boys  and  girls  enter  this  No 
Man's  Land  of  Education  annually  —  a  territory  which 
for  years  has  not  been  considered  sufficiently  valuable 
to  be  even  disputed  ground,  but  which  is  now  acknowl- 
edged to  be  neither  distinctly  the  field  of  the  public  schools 

•  "State  Laws  Requiring  Attendance  Upon  Part-Time  or  Ck>ntiiiiistion  Schools" 
(Summary),  School  Life,  Dec.  15,  1919,  pp.  14-16. 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  19 

nor  the  field  of  the  employment  service,  but  to  require 
the  cooperation  of  both.  The  character  of  continuation 
schools,  their  purpose,  the  type  of  pupil  they  enroll  and 
the  double  character  of  their  responsibihty,  makes  them 
the  most  important  point  of  contact  for  educational 
and  vocational  effort.  The  boys  and  girls  whom  they 
enroll  are  gradually  leaving  behind  the  period  of  their 
lives  in  which  the  school  has  been  the  dominant  influence 
and  are  passing  into  a  period  wherein  their  occupational 
interests  are  to  be  the  controlling  factor.  Education 
still  holds,  or  should  hold,  the  field,  but  education  in  the 
broader  sense  which  includes  the  occupational  interests 
of  the  young.  Both  the  school  system  and  the  employ- 
ment service  should  be  omnipresent,  seeking  at  every 
opportunity  to  serve  either  individually  or  cooperatively. 
No  member  of  the  employment  corps,  especially  if  assigned 
to  the  placement  of  boys  and  girls  of  continuation  school 
age,  can  hope  to  be  an  efficient  g-dviser  without  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  continuation  school  problem  in  all 
of  its  phases.  It  is  one  of  the  duties  of  advisers  to  collect 
information  which  is  useful  in  the  employment  office  as 
the  basis  for  advisory  work  and  it  is  their  privilege  to 
make  such  information  available  to  continuation  and 
elementary  schools.  It  is  also  the  duty  of  advisers  to 
have  at  their  command  all  the  information  which  is  avail- 
able to  aid  applicants  of  school  age  in  selecting  the  courses 
best  calculated  to  contribute  to  their  progress.  The 
continuation  school  age  is  the  critical  age  in  the  lives  of 
boys  and  girls.  If  the  efforts  of  our  school  departments 
and  our  employment  departments  be  intelligently  co- 
operative at  this  period,  they  will  be  able  to  make  a  great 
reduction  in  the  juvenile  army  of  "failure"  leaving  the 
elementary  schools  and  a  great  increase  in  the  junior  army 
cf  "success"  as  it  passes  from  the  continuation  school 


20  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

into  the  adult  occupational  field.  During  the  year  since 
the  organization  of  the  Junior  Division  of  the  United 
States  Employment  Service,  advice  along  the  line  of 
cooperative  functions  of  the  continuation  school  and  the 
employment  service  has  been  solicited  more  frequently 
than  any  other  phase  of  the  junior  placement  service. 

(8)  What  percentage  are  pursuing  business,  evening  or 
correspondence  courses,  what  purposes  have  they  in  view, 
and  what  background  have  they  upon  which  to  estimate  the 
return  on  their  investment  ? 

One  of  the  most  suggestive  series  of  publications  re- 
garding business  courses  pursued  by  young  boys  and  girls 
is  the  Eaton-Stevens  group  of  research  reports  on  com- 
mercial work,^ 

From  one  of  these  we  learn  that  40  out  of  67  private 
commercial  schools  in  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  register 
7000  day  and  6000  evening  pupils.  The  majority  of 
pupils  are  15  and  16  years  of  age  and  have  completed  the 
elementary  school.  The  average  period  of  attendance  is 
six  months ;  the  uniform  expense,  $10  per  month.  Nearly 
all  of  these  schools  operate  employment  departments 
and  feel  responsible  for  securing  the  first  position,  although 
no  particular  effort  is  made  to  know  the  character  of  the 
position  to  which  pupils  are  referred.  Solicitation  of 
pupils  for  private  school  courses  is  a  common  practice. 
Many  solicitors  work  on  a  commission  and  have  no  other 
connection  with  the  school  which  employs  them.  The 
best  schools  admit  that  they  registered  many  children  who 
chose  their  courses  wrongly,  who  are  too  young,  too  un- 

•  Stevens,  Bertha  M.,  "Private  Commercial  Schools:  Manhattan  and  the 
Bronx,"  New  York  City,  Public  Education  Association,  1918. 

Stevens,  Bertha  M.,  "Boys  and  Girls  in  Commercial  Work,"  Cleveland,  O., 
Survey  Committee  of  the  Cleveland  Foundation,  1916. 

Stevens,  Bertha  M.,  and  Eaton,  Jeannette,  "  Commercial  Work  and  Training 
for  Girls,"  New  York,  The  Macmillan  Company,  1915. 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  21 

prepared  academically,  too  immature,  and  too  undesirable 
personally  to  secure  and  hold  positions  in  the  lines  of  work 
for  which  their  ambition  is  influencing  them  to  prepare. 
Commerciahzed  education  of  this  type,  more  or  less  preva- 
lent in  all  of  our  larger  cities,  means  that  hundreds  of 
young  people  upon  whom  the  public  schools  have  lost  their 
hold  are  investing  time,  money,  and  effort  in  vocational 
training  which  foretells  discouragement,  discontent,  and 
enormous  labor  turnover,  or  acceptance  of  work  which 
they  could  have  done  equally  well  without  training. 
Employment  records,  in  one  instance,  show  that  23  per 
cent  of  the  positions  held  could  have  been  filled  equally 
well  with  no  training  other  than  that  offered  by  the  ele- 
mentary school.  In  a  second  instance  we  find  that  out 
of  697  placements  more  than  one  fourth  were  retained 
less  than  one  month. 

"School  children  need  to  be  shown  in  graphic,  concrete  ways 
that  the  average  eighth-grade  graduate  is  not  ready  for  stenographic 
training;  that  there  are  many  positions  in  office  work  which  do 
not  demand  stenography ;  and  that,  since  the  advent  of  the  socialized 
free  employment  bureaus  for  juveniles,  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to 
attend  a  private  commercial  school  in  order  to  be  helped  to  a  posi- 
tion. ..."  1 

The  public  schools,  through  their  continuation  schools, 
should  be  able  to  control  to  a  great  extent  the  education 
of  those  under  16,  17,  or  18  years  of  age,  and  the  Junior 
Division  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service  should 
be  able  to  do  away  with  the  evils  of  placement  found  in 
the  employment  bureaus  of  private  schools.^ 

The  type  of  young  person  who  attends  the  pubHc  eve- 
ning schools  and  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  such 

*  Stevens,  Bertha  M.,  "Private  Commercial  Schools:  Manhattan  and  the 
Bronx,"  pp.  16,  18,  34,  88. 

*  Every  counselor  should  read  the  chapter  on  "The  Fate  of  the  Grade  School 
Children"  in  Eaton  and  Stevens,  "Commercial  Work  and  Training  for  Girls." 


22  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

schools  from  the  point  of  view  of  educational  and  occu- 
pational guidance  has  been  discussed  in  several  modern 
publications.^ 

Our  own  experience  in  handling  evening  school  pupils 
convinced  us  that  pedagogical  procedure  cannot  be  trans- 
ferred from  the  day  to  the  evening  school.  The  problem 
of  evening  school  guidance  involves  elements  entirely 
different  from  those  of  day  school  guidance. 

"Mary  may  have  been  well  understood  last  year  by  her  teacher 
in  the  seventh  grade,  but  when  she  comes  back  to  the  evening  eighth 
grade  with  her  new  wage-earning  experience  she  is  disappointed  to 
find  that  her  viewpoint  is  not  understood  as  it  used  to  be  and  be- 
comes discouraged.  It  is  experience  with  hfe  that  helps  us  to 
understand  and  interpret  evening  school  pupils  correctly.  Too  few 
of  our  teachers  have  the  background  for  evening  school  success  and 
our  little  wage-earner  knows  it  better  than  we."  ^ 

(9)  What  records  are  available  through  educational  agencies 
which  indicate  aptitudes,  developed  abilities,  potential  abili- 
ties, and  the  type  of  characteristics  or  qualifications  which  are 
universally  recognized  as  either  assets  or  liabilities  in  occu- 
pational life  ? 

Several  pubhc  school  systems  have  established  guidance 
and  placement  departments.  Their  initial  move  has 
usually  been  preparation  of  a  complete  and  elaborate 
system  of  record  cards,  including  a  "personal  history 
sheet."  The  uniform  difficulty  with  school  records  is 
that  they  have  been  evolved  from  theoretical  knowledge 
of  industry  combined  with  practical  academic  knowledge 

*  "The  School  and  the  Immigrant,"  Survey  Committee,  Cleveland  Foundation, 
1916. 

Van  Kleeck,  Mary,  "Working  Girls  in  Evening  Schoola,"  New  York,  Russell 
Sage  Foundation,  1914. 

Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Vocational  Guidance  Report,"  pp.  43  £f. 

Schneider,  Herman,  "Education  for  Industrial  Workers,"  pp.  55  ff.,  Yonkers- 
on-Hudson,  World  Book  Company,  1915. 

'  Reed,  Anna-Y.,  "Vocational  Guidance  Report,"  p.  60. 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  23 

of  boys  and  girls,  and  much  which  is  called  for  by  these 
various  record  sheets  is  non-essential,  cumbersome,  and 
very  difficult  to  secure.  The  purpose  of  a  personal  history 
sheet  during  the  period  of  school  hfe  is  two-fold :  (1)  to 
furnish  data,  including  both  developed  and  potential 
abilities,  upon  which  each  successive  teacher  may  assist 
her  individual  pupils  to  formulate  a  definite  program  for 
progressive  advancement ;  and  (2)  to  furnish  data  upon 
which  the  abilities  and  interests  acquired  in  school  life 
may  be  transferred  into  occupational  Hfe  and  utilized  to 
the  best  possible  advantage.  Study  of  the  schedule  of 
values  agreed  upon  by  business  men  indicates  that  char- 
acteristics most  valued  in  the  business  world  are  the  very 
same  quahties  that  the  educational  system  declares  to 
be  of  prime  importance  but  still  does  almost  nothing 
to  discover  and  develop.  Character  is  the  first  demand 
of  the  business  world  and  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  of 
quaUfications  demanded  for  its  record  sheets.  Academic 
knowledge  and  technical  skill  are  given  fifth  rank.  On 
the  other  hand,  while  industry  demands  moral  capacity 
and  criticizes  the  schools  and  colleges  for  failure  to  recog- 
nize and  develop  it,  it  does  very  little  in  its  own  field  toward 
solution  of  the  same  problem.^ 

Selecting  data  for  record  cards  is  a  very  responsible 
and  a  very  important  part  of  vocational  guidance  and 
placement.  Essentials  should  be  carefully  selected  and 
should  be  secured ;  ^    non-essentials  mean  useless  record 

*  Dr.  Mann  of  Carnegie  Foundation  made  a  very  comprehensive  and  very  sug- 
gestive study  along  this  line  for  the  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools. 
Results  are  published  in  the  Report  of  the  Association  for  1917,  p.  228. 

This  same  subject  has  been  discussed  in  the  Vocational  Report  of  the  Seattle 
Public  Schools,  1916.     See  pages  74-75  of  this  manuscript. 

'  The  type  of  records  in  use  in  business  houses  is  the  best  guide  in  selecting 
essential  data  for  personal  record  sheets.  Comparison  of  the  rating  of  boys  and 
girls  on  character  qualities  by  the  schools  and  by  industrial  houses  is  very  helpful. 

"Newsboy  Service"  contains  a  comparison  of  character  ratings  given  boys  by 
teachers  with  the  ratings  of  the  employer,  pp.  62-65. 


24  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

making,  involving  waste  of  time,  effort,  and  money.  Re- 
view of  files  in  various  school  offices  confirms  the  results 
of  our  Seattle  experience  —  data  of  great  importance 
for  intelHgent  advice  and  placement  are  not  easily  secured 
for  record  cards,  while  much  material  of  no  practical 
value  is  frequently  incorporated.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  this  condition.  Possibly  one  of  the  most 
potent  is  the  fact  that  the  classroom  teacher  has  Uttle 
or  no  conception  of  how  these  data  are  to  be  used  for 
employment  purposes  and  resents  the  additional  burden 
of  preparing  it.  A  second  reason  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  teachers  have  long  been  accustomed  to  a  mechanical 
system  of  grading  whereby  they  felt,  although  facts 
hardly  warrant  the  assumption,  that  absolute  justice  was 
being  afforded  each  pupil.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to 
grade  examination  papers  in  such  subjects  as  arithmetic, 
spelling,  grammar,  and  geography,  but  rather  difficult 
to  rate  pupils  on  such  qualities  as  adaptability,  initiative, 
accuracy,  cooperation,  rehability,  etc.  Some  teachers 
lack  the  comprehension  necessary  to  handle  such  a  record 
system  and  disapprove  it  most  heartily.  A  third,  and 
possibly  even  a  more  common  reason,  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  teachers  hesitate  to  evaluate  moral  qualities  in  "black 
and  white,"  especially  when  such  ratings  are  based  so 
largely  upon  personal  observation.  They  fear  that  their 
estimates  may  not  be  correct  and  that  they  will  cause 
some  injustice  to  their  pupils.  We  need  not  go  into  details 
on  this  phase  of  the  problem.  Teachers  do  not  hesitate 
to  place  a  low  rating  on  academic  subjects  in  "black  and 
white"  on  the  record  cards,  nor  do  they  hesitate  by  means 
of  these  same  recorded  data  to  brand  as  "failures"  some 
50  per  cent  of  their  charges  who,  had  they  been  educated 
differently,  might  have  developed  all  the  elements  of 
success.    The  only  difference  is  that  one  type  of  data 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  25 

is  new  and  receives  more  careful  consideration  as  to  results, 
whereas  the  other  is  old  and  teachers'  consciences  have 
become  somewhat  hardened  to  results.  Our  own  expe- 
rience has  indicated  that  the  most  helpful  data  for  record 
cards  are  secured  by  giving  each  pupil  an  opportunity  for 
self-analysis  along  the  lines  which  make  for  success  and 
permitting  him  to  be  the  final  judge  as  to  what  data  shall 
be  added  to  his  personal  record  sheet.  Development  of 
abiUties  for  self -analysis  and  self-control  are  an  important 
part  of  education  and  will  be  immensely  valuable  to  boys 
and  girls  after  school  days  are  over. 

(10)  What  industries  do  these  junior  wage  earners  enter  ? 

The  class  of  industries  which  prevail  in  any  given  city 
is  a  prime  factor  in  determining  the  amount  and  type  of 
both  juvenile  and  junior  employment.  It  is  a  much  more 
important  factor  than  is  the  total  population  of  the  city. 
If  metal  factories  predominate,  assorting,  inspecting, 
assembling,  wrapping,  Hght  grinding,  etc.,  offer  wage- 
earning  opportunities  to  a  large  number  of  youths. 

Wherever  hosiery,  neckties,  bead  necklaces,  suspenders, 
and  similar  articles  are  made,  junior  employment  is  bound 
to  be  above  normal.  The  national  offices  of  our  large 
insurance  companies  provide  positions  for  a  good  many 
juvenile  employees  of  the  type  discussed  in  the  Report 
of  the  Committee  to  investigate  Private  Commercial 
Schools  in  New  York  City.  The  same  maintains  with 
reference  to  our  large  mail-order  houses.  Wrapping 
soap,  yeast  cakes,  and  similar  articles  are  typical  juvenile 
employments.  Comparative  statistics  on  juvenile  em- 
ployment in  Milwaukee  and  in  Pittsburgh  submitted  by 
Mr.  Frank  M.  Leavitt,  Associate  Superintendent  of 
Schools  in  Pittsburgh,  who  is  also  in  charge  of  the  Junior 
Division  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service  in 


26  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

that  city,  illustrate  very  clearly  how  types  of  industries 
which  prevail  in  these  two  cities  is  a  decisive  factor  in 
juvenile  employment.  Compulsory  continuation  schools 
operate  in  both  cities ;  Milwaukee  age  limits  are  14  to 
17,  Pittsburgh  age  Hmits  14  to  16 ;  Milwaukee's  estimated 
population  for  1919  was  445,008,  Pittsburgh's  586,196; 
Milwaukee  enrolls  approximately  10,000  continuation 
school  pupils,  Pittsburgh  approximately  2100.  Doubt- 
less there  are  law  violations  in  both  cities,  hence  when 
we  deduct  5000  Milwaukee  pupils  who  are  between  16 
and  17  we  have  remaining  5000  juvenile  workers  (14  and 
15)  in  Milwaukee  in  comparison  with  2100  of  the  same 
age  in  the  Pittsburgh  group.  Milwaukee  is  a  child-em- 
ploying city,  Pittsburgh  is  not.  Providence,  R.  1.,  is 
another  city  operating  a  Junior  Division  of  the  Employ- 
ment Service.  Its  estimated  population  for  1919  is 
259,895,  whereas  the  School  Committee  Report  for  1918 
calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  of  the  city's  children  be- 
tween 14  and  16  approximately  2900  are  in  school  and 
3800  at  work.  In  proportion  to  total  population  Provi- 
dence has  a  much  larger  juvenile  employment  problem 
than  either  Pittsburgh  or  Milwaukee. 

Boys  and  girls  over  16  years  of  age  find  it  a  much  easier 
matter  to  select  good  employment  openings.  Both  are 
eligible  to  apprenticeship  training  and  many  high  class 
business  houses  are  glad  to  employ  and  promote  earnest 
conscientious  workers  between  the  ages  of  16  and  21. 

(11)  How  did  they  secure  their  first  positions?  What 
influenced  their  choice  or  did  they  just  drift  ?  If  the  latter, 
where  are  they  drifting  ? 

When  one  seeks  to  know  how  workers  secure  positions, 
it  is  sometimes  wise  to  reverse  the  question  and  inquire 
how  and  where  business  houses  secure  employees.     For 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  27 

many  years,  progressive  employers  have  been  seeking 
to  ascertain  the  "most  complete  and  the  most  satisfactory 
sources  of  labor  supply."  A  good  employment  depart- 
ment is  expected  to  keep  in  close  connection  with  promising 
sources  of  supply,  such  as  heads  of  technical  schools, 
technical  periodicals,  graduating  class  hsts,  newspaper 
advertising,  and  the  various  types  of  employment  agencies.* 
Several  tabulations  of  the  various  sources  to  which  em- 
ployers turn  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  new  employees, 
accompanied  by  their  comment  on  such  sources,  lead  us 
to  two  conclusions,  (1)  that  there  is  no  general  satisfaction 
with  any  of  the  present  sources  of  labor  supply,  and  (2) 
that  personal  appHcation  at  the  office,  advertising,  and 
"scouting"  are  the  most  common  and  the  most  satis- 
factory methods  of  securing  employees.  Turning  to  the 
employee  side  of  the  problem,  we  find  that  personal 
application,  suggestions  from  friends,  and  newspaper 
advertising  are  the  most  helpful  employment  agencies. 
Signs  in  windows  rank  higher  as  an  efficiently  functioning 
employment  service  for  boys  and  girls  than  does  the 
assistance  of  the  pubHc  schools.  It  is  estimated,  and  there 
is  sufficient  evidence  to  prove  that  the  estimate  is  approxi- 
mately correct,  that  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  junior 
employees  in  this  country  receive  guidance  and  assistance 
from  the  public  school  or  from  any  other  qualified  agency 
in  selecting  their  positions  or  in  succeeding  therein  after 
the  initial  choice  has  been  made.  Apropos  of  the  above 
statements,  I  offer  a  significant  quotation  from  the  Com- 
mittee on  Employment  Plans,  National  Association  of 
Corporation  Schools,  1916 : 

"When  help  is  badly  needed,  signs  posted  conspicuously  often 
bring  satisfactory  applicants,  as  'Boj'  Wanted,'  with  a  description 
of  the  work." 

'  Report  of  the  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools,  1916.  Source?  of 
obtaining  new  employees. 


28  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

"Scouting"  for  employees  in  colleges  and  universities 
is  quite  common,  but  of  course  many  such  employees 
are  beyond  the  junior  age  limit.  A  certain  per  cent  of 
college  men  are  bound  to  be  failures  in  business,  but  taking 
them  as  a  whole  there  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that 
potential  abilities  coupled  with  college  training  offer 
material  worth  testing.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
sifting  process  of  our  educational  system  has  eliminated 
a  large  part  of  our  junior  population  long  before  college 
is  reached ;  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  less  than  2  per  cent 
of  our  total  school  enrollment  is  in  schools  of  collegiate 
rank  and  many  who  are  so  enrolled  are  never  graduated, 
we  are  appalled  to  learn  that  quite  recently  one  of  our 
large  business  houses  conducted  a  series  of  personal  inter- 
views with  800  college  graduates  with  a  view  to  obtaining 
new  employees.  Two  hundred  and  eighty-seven  passed 
the  interview  test,  the  remainder  were  rejected.^  Lack 
of  originality  and  initiative  was  the  uniform  basis  of  re- 
jection. Is  it  possible  that  the  schools  of  our  country, 
from  kindergarten  through  the  university,  not  only  do 
nothing  to  discover  and  develop  initiative  and  originality 
but  that  they  also  either  eliminate  those  who  possess  it 
or  kill  it  in  the  process  of  development  to  such  an  extent 
that  approximately  two  thirds  of  the  college  graduates 
are  without  this  type  of  ability?  In  other  words,  is  it 
impossible  in  this  country  to  secure  secondary  or  higher 
education  and  at  the  same  time  retain  or  develop  initiative 
and  originality? 

Usually  juvenile,  and  frequently  junior,  applicants 
take  the  first  job  offered  without  regard  to  the  industry, 
the  process  within  the  industry  or  the  employer,  and 
without  any  consideration  of  what  it  has  to  offer  him  or 

>  Relation  between  supply  and  demand  always  controls  acceptance  or  rejection 
to  some  extent. 


MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  PROBLEM  29 

his  fitness  for  its  needs. ^  Often  it  is  the  first  job  which 
makes  or  mars  a  boy  for  Hfe ;  often,  too,  a  high-class  boy 
with  definite  abiUty  to  meet  definite  requirements  accepts 
a  third  or  fourth  rate  "boy  wanted"  job  when  a  first- 
class  opportunity  to  utilize  and  develop  his  talents  is 
close  at  hand,  seeking  just  what  he  has  to  offer.  Nearly 
all  of  the  studies  cited  in  footnotes  give  statistical  evi- 
dence as  to  periods  of  unemployment,  amount  of  wage 
loss,  intellectual  and  moral  deterioration,  and  social  unrest 
involved  in  junior  employment.  The  writer  has  often 
found  100  or  more  applicants  waiting  ''at  the  gate." 
Boys  have  reported  that  frequently  from  50  to  300  boys, 
14  to  18  years  of  age,  are  waiting  in  line  for  a  chance  to 
apply  for  the  two  or  three  positions  advertised.  The 
discouragement  and  humiliation  of  such  boys  when  the 
gate  opens  and  one  or  two  promising  looking  boys  are 
beckoned  to  enter  and  the  remainder  told  "Nothing  today 
tor  you  boys,"  is  very  real  and  very  keen.  The  same 
incident  repeated  several  times  changes  humiliation  and 
discouragement  to  dissatisfaction  with  everything  and 
general  resentment  toward  that  "which  is."  Is  it  any 
wonder,  if  older  and  more  radical  leaders  be  also  waiting 
at  the  gate,  that  seeds  of  discontent  and  anarchy  are  sown 
on  very  fertile  ground  ? 

Nor  is  this  all  —  young  girls  and  young  boys  both,  al- 
though the  matter  is  far  more  serious  for  girls,  who  are 
cast  adrift  at  14  to  16  years  of  age,  are  often  placed  in 

*  The  slow  progress  in  pooling  junior  supply  and  demand  and  the  great  difficulties 
involved  in  persuading  boys  and  girls  to  utilize  an  employment  service  is  indicated 
in  a  recent  letter  from  the  Employment  Department  of  Great  Britain  issued  as 
this  publication  goes  to  press.  The  quotation  is  particularly  significant  when 
we  recall  that  England  has  had  approximately  ten  years  of  public  employment 
experience.  "Even  now  a  common  method  of  recruitment  is  to  take  on  boys  at 
the  gate,  and  choice  is  limited  t^  the  boys  who  happen  to  apply.  The  boys  are 
selected  according  to  their  face  value  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  ascertain  the 
nature  of  their  previous  training  or  to  secure  that  they  are  even  physically  suited 
for  their  work."     Ministry  of  Labor,  March,  1920. 


30  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

great  moral  danger  while  seeking  employment.    Blind 
ads  are  an  ever  present  danger  in  our  methods  of  employ- 
ment.    Solicitation  of  girl  employees  on  the  streets  is 
constantly  carried  on  and  many  girls  totally  unprepared 
for  the  dangers  involved  are  glad  to  receive  offers  of  higher 
wages  if  they  care  to  change  positions.     Educators  and 
social  workers  who  have  been  interested  in  junior  problems 
covering  a  period  of  years  will  readily  recall  the  prose- 
cution, a  decade  or  more  ago,  of  a  group  of  twenty  persons, 
mostly  men  as  I  recall  it,  who  were  convicted  of  carrying 
on  a  regular  and  profitable  business  of  leading  young  girls 
astray.     Their   victims   were   almost   always   appHcants 
for  employment.     They   were   followed   to  "the  gate," 
watched  lentil  the  results  were  known,  and  met  after  refusal, 
when  discouragement  and  humiliation  made  them  more 
ready  to  accept  any  proposal  offered.     Some  years  ago 
progressive   legislators   enacted   statutes   forbidding   the 
presence  in  court  rooms  of  other  than  those  immediately 
concerned  when  hearings  on  juvenile  delinquency  were 
on  the  calendar.     Such  legislation  was  based  largely  on 
known  facts  relative  to  a  certain  type  of  men  and  women 
who  frequented  the  court  for  the  express  purpose  of  spot- 
ting easy  game.     Many  boys  and  girls  released  on  proba- 
tion with  every  promise  of  reformation  gave  it  up  in  de- 
spair when  they  found  that  the  story  of  their  fall  was  well 
known  to  men  and  women   of  the  underworld.     Public 
hearings   branded   these   children  as   criminals   for  Ufe. 
Are  our  present  methods  of  employment  branding  boys 
and  girls  for  life?     If  girls  and  boj^s  seeking  employment 
were  to  be  properly  guided  and  protected  in  the  beginning 
of  their  economic  independence,  there  would  be  less  demand 
for  trial  of  juvenile  delinquents.  (In  time  we  shall  learn 
that  prevention  is  better  than  cure.) 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  31 

(12)  What  is  the  labor  turnover  in  this  group  and  how  is 
it  affecting  the  progressive  development  of  each  boy  and  girl  ? 

One  of  the  main  objects  of  a  federal  employment  service 
is  the  stabilization  of  employment.  But,  as  Mr.  Leavitt 
has  well  said,  there  are  certain  low-grade  jobs  where  there 
is  danger  in  too  great  stabilization.  We  have  had  one 
very  interesting  study  along  this  line  which  is  of  national 
interest.  In  it  we  are  told  that  upon  the  basis  of  nine 
years  of  statistical  study  it  has  been  proved  that  a  boy 
in  a  low-grade  job  who  changes  his  job  three  times  a  year 
has  a  better  earning  capacity  at  the  end  of  the  year  than 
has  the  boy  who  sticks  to  one  job ;  but  if  a  boy  changes 
his  job  six  times  in  one  year  he  has  a  lower  earning  capac- 
ity. In  other  words  the  low-grade  job  is  educative  for 
about  one  third  of  a  year ;  the  boy  who  reaUzes  that  the 
job  has  nothing  more  to  offer  increases  his  capacity  by 
leaving  it,  whereas  the  boy  who  changes  twice  as  often 
reveals  instability  which  is  dangerous  for  his  future  safety.* 
In  Pittsburgh  Mr.  Leavitt  is  trying  to  combine  the  in- 
crease in  earning  capacity  which  comes  from  three  changes 
with  job  stability  by  explaining  the  situation  to  employers 
and  attempting  to  make  the  shift  from  one  process  to 
another  within  the  same  plant  rather  than  to  permit 
change  in  employers. 

Occupational  instabihty  is  a  universal  and  a  serious 
problem.  It  is  increasingly  common  from  14  to  18  years 
of  age  and  contributes  its  full  share  toward  creating  an 
army  of  unemployables.  The  wasted  time  and  irregular 
financial  returns  are  leading  to  great  economic  and  social 
waste.'^ 


»  WooUey,  Helen  T.,  "Cincinnati  Research  Studies  under  the  Auspices  of  the 
Public  Schools." 

*  Nearly  all  phases  of  the  qualitative  problem  of  junior  education  and  employ- 
ment are  touched  upon  in  local  reports.     Typical  Work  Records  are  included. 


32  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

(13)  What  general  and  what  specific  information  have 
they  acquired  in  the  schoolroom  which  has  equipped  them  to 
understand  their  relation  to  one  another  and  to  society  as 
a  whole  ? 

(14)  To  what  extent  have  they  shown  initiative  and  leader- 
ship, or  if  they  have  not  the  qualities  of  leadership,  have  they 
shown  ability  to  select  leadership  intelligently  and  to  follow 
it  discriminatingly  ? 

A  summary  of  replies  to  questions  13  and  14  would 
indicate  much  of  value  for  the  future  welfare  of  our 
country. 

The  above  questions  indicate,  although  they  do  not 
cover,  the  field  of  the  qualitative  phase  of  our  subject. 
They  indicate  also  the  broad  general  knowledge  which  is 
required  of  the  guidance  and  placement  worker.  Obvi- 
ously, individual  analysis  of  this  type  cannot  be  accom- 
pHshed  by  the  group  system  which  is  in  vogue  in  the 

Bloomfield,  Meyer,  "Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,"  Boston,  Ginn  &  Co., 
1915. 

Bloomfield,  Meyer,  "Youth,  School  and  Vocation,"  New  York,  Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.,  1915;    Chap.  II:  "The  Wasteful  Start  and  Inefficiency." 

Chicago  School  of  Civics  and  Philanthropy,  "Finding  Employment  for  Children 
Who  Leave  the  Grade  Schools  to  Go  to  Work,"  by  Breckinridge  and  Abbott,  1911. 

Hartford,  Conn.,  Vocational  Guidance  Committee,  Report,  1911-1913,  Hartford, 
January,  1914. 

Hiatt,  James  H.,  "The  Child,  the  School  and  the  Job,"  Philadelphia  City  Club, 
Bulletin,  December  27,  1912.  Reprinted  by  the  Public  Education  Association, 
Study  No.  30. 

Lewis,  Ervin  E.,  "Work,  Wages  and  Schooling  of  Eight  Hundred  Iowa  Boys  in 
Relation  to  the  Problems  of  Vocational  Guidance,"  Iowa  University  Extension, 
Bulletin  No.  9,  February  6,  1915. 

Minneapolis  Teachers'  Club,  Vocational  Survey  of  Minneapolis,  1913. 

Talbert,  Ernest  L.,  "Opportunities  in  School  and  Industry  for  Children  of  the 
Stockyards  District,"  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1912. 

WooUey,  Helen  Thompson,  "Charting  Childhood  in  Cincinnati,"  Survey, 
August  9,  1913. 

Newark,  N.  J.,  Board  of  Education,  "Vocational  Overview  of  Newark,"  pre- 
pared by  Charles  H.  Winslow,  Newark,  1916. 

Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Seattle  Children  in  School  and  in  Industry,"  Seattle,  Board 
of  Education,  1915.  Pages  22,  24,  51,  59,  93  give  the  result  of  the  writer's  personal 
study  in  Seattle. 


MAGNITUDE   OF  THE   PROBLEM  33 

classroom  of  the  average  city  system  today.  The  six 
and  a  half  million  boys  and  girls  under  consideration  repre- 
sent six  and  a  half  million  individual  social,  educational, 
and  occupational  problems.  The  fact  that  they  have 
not  been  so  treated  is  one  of  the  main  reasons  why  they 
are  "on  the  fence"  today.  The  Junior  Division  of  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  must  profit  by,  not 
repeat,  the  errors  of  the  educational  system.  Obviously, 
also,  no  agency  is  prepared  to  furnish  accurate  individual 
data  which  would  afford  the  placement  department  of  the 
Service  rehable  information  upon  which  to  suggest  the 
position  which  seems  to  offer  the  appUcant  the  best  oppor- 
tunity for  personal  development  and  at  the  same  time 
supply  the  position  with  the  worker  best  equipped  to  meet 
its  demand.  It  will  be  many  years  before  scientific  record 
making  of  this  type  can  be  instituted  in  the  public  and 
private  schools  of  this  country,  and  many  years  before 
scientific  placement  systems  will  be  at  hand  to  build  upon 
the  foundation  so  offered.  In  the  meantime,  however, 
it  is  well  for  students  of  educational  and  employment 
problems  to  famiharize  themselves  with  the  beginnings 
which  have  been  made  in  this  direction.  The  careful 
reader  will  be  surprised  to  find  so  much  data  from  which 
generalization  can  be  made  and  so  many  generalizations 
which  contain  suggestions  for  local  progress. 


CHAPTER  II 

EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  THE  EMPLOYMENT 
PROBLEM 

(Vocational  Choice) 

"We  live  in  the  end  and  the  beginning  of  an  age.  The  forces  of 
destruction  and  the  forces  of  construction  are  traveUng  side  by  side." 

Great  national  movements  are  not  born  overnight. 
They  are  not  the  child  of  a  single  brain  nor  are  they  the 
enterprise  of  a  single  agency.  Theory  and  practice,  prac- 
tice and  theory,  the  real  and  the  ideal,  the  ideal  and  the 
real,  fact  and  fiction,  fiction  and  fact,  science  and  quackery, 
quackery  and  science  —  the  forces  of  destruction  and 
the  forces  of  construction  are  ever  traveUng  side  by  side. 
Each  new  movement  in  its  evolution  passes  through  stages 
in  which  now  one  and  now  the  other  is  bound  to  dominate. 
If  the  principle  upon  which  the  movement  rests  be  sound, 
if  there  be  a  fundamental  truth  involved,  then  there  is 
also  an  element  of  immortahty.  Sooner  or  later  theory 
and  practice,  the  real  and  the  ideal,  fact  and  fiction, 
science  and  quackery,  are  bound  to  be  merged  and  human- 
ity receive  the  benefit  of  the  merging. 

The  Junior  Division  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service  is  a  national  movement.  Sometime  it  will  become 
a  great  national  movement.  WTiether  or  not  that  time  be 
now  depends  entirely  upon  the  vision  of  the  American  people 
and  upon  their  ability  to  put  into  practical  operation  the 
fundamental  lessons  of  the  great  war. 

The  Junior  Di\'ision  of  the  United  States  Emplojnnent 
Service  was  not  born  overnight.     It  is  not  the  child  of  a 

34 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE   EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      35 

single  brain,  nor  is  it  the  enterprise  of  a  single  agency. 
The  contest  between  theory  and  practice,  the  real  and  the 
ideal,  fact  and  fiction,  science  and  quackery  in  their  efforts 
to  control  the  occupational  choice  of  the  young,  makes 
just  as  interesting  reading  from  the  pages  of  ancient  history 
as  from  the  pages  of  a  modern  magazine.  After  all,  hu- 
manity progresses  slowly.  It  takes  no  prophetic  vision 
to  foresee  that  this  contest  will  continue  and  that  record 
making  of  a  similar  character  will  fill  the  pages  of  modern 
as  well  as  of  ancient  history,  until  some  reasonably  prac- 
tical solution  of  the  problem  of  employment  be  found  — 
a  solution  which  is  sufficiently  elastic  to  meet  the  demands 
of  a  progressive  civiUzation. 

Let  us  pass  over  the  annals  of  ancient  days  and  scan 
the  pages  of  the  last  decade.  Many  agencies  have  been 
involved.  Some  altruistically,  others  selfishly;  some 
intelhgently,  others  sentimentally.  The  point  is  that 
each  has  been  interested  and  each  has  sought  to  formulate 
some  theory  of  vocational  selection  or  to  establish  some 
practical  method  of  guidance  which  was  the  cliild  of  its 
own  brain. 

Five  agencies,  or  groups  of  agencies,  have  instituted 
efforts  to  help  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  "the  boy 
on  the  fence"  :  (1)  Philanthropic  agencies,  (2)  Educational 
agencies,  (3)  Business  organizations,  (4)  Pubhc  Emplojniient 
Ofl&ces,  and  (5)  the  federal  government  through  the  United 
States  Employment  Service  established  in  the  Department 
of  Labor.  As  is  the  custom  in  this  country,  private  or- 
ganizations have  led  the  way,^  the  public  schools  have 
followed,  and  finally  the  federal  government  has  become 
interested.     It  is  without  the  province  of  this  manual 

1  In  both  England  and  Germany  verj'  valuable  experimental  guidance  and 
placement  was  conducted  under  private  auspices  prior  to  the  organization  of  the 
work  on  a  national  basis. 


36  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

to  go  into  details  as  to  the  origin  of  the  vocational  guid- 
ance movement.  Moreover,  it  is  useless  to  do  so.  Several 
available  publications  contain  complete  historical  data 
on  this  phase  of  the  subject,  and  the  references  cited  may- 
be augmented  to  whatever  extent  is  desirable  from  the 
general  bibliographies  listed  below.^ 

1.    PHILANTHROPIC    AGENCIES 

For  those  who  have  time,  the  history  of  philanthropic 
efforts  is  very  interesting;  so  also  is  the  history  of  the 
organizations  installed  under  the  auspices  of  business 
associations  and  later  turned  over  to  the  educational 
systems.  Motives,  purposes,  and  viewpoints  have  been 
varied ;  naturally  such  variations  have  been  reflected  in 
methods  and  results.^ 

The  first  conscious  effort  toward  the  organization  of 
vocational  guidance  began  with  the  work  of  E.  W.  Weaver 
in  the  Boys'  High  School  of  Brooklyn  and  of  Frank  Par- 
sons in  his  social  settlement  work  in  Boston,  1908-1909. 
In  1910  the  first  national  vocational  guidance  conference 
was  held  in  Boston  and  in  1913  a  National  Vocational 
Guidance  Association  was  formally  organized  at  Grand 
Rapids.  Meetings  have  been  held  annually;  profitable 
and  pleasant  associations  have  been  formed,  reports  have 
been  interesting,  and  discussions  have,  at  times,  been 
inspirational,  but  something  has  been  lacking  which  was 

*  Brewer,  John  M.,  and  Kelly,  Roy  M.,  "Selected  Bibliography  of  Vocational 
Guidance,"  Harvard  Bulletins  in  Education,  No.  4.  Cambridge,  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, 1917. 

Bloomfield,  Meyer,  "Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,"  Boston,  Ginn  &  Co., 
1915.  Compilation  of  the  best  articles  which  appeared  during  the  seven  years 
prior  to  its  publication. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  "Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Public 
Schools,"  W.  Carson  Ryan,  Jr.,  Washington,  1918.     (Bulletins,  1918,  No.  24.) 

'  The  excellent  pioneer  work  done  by  philanthropic  agencies  in  Boston,  Chicago, 
New  York,  Omaha,  Cleveland,  and  elsewhere  is  referred  to  later,  and  more  detailed 
information  may  be  secured  from  the  bibliographies. 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      37 

needed  to  vitalize  the  movement.  The  convention  in 
St.  Louis,  February,  1919,  practically  terminated  the 
existence  of  the  first  National  Association  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Vocational  Guidance.  A  new  national  asso- 
ciation with  the  same  purpose  in  view  was  announced  at 
the  Chicago  meeting  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Vocational  Education,  February  21,  1920. 

2.     EDUCATIONAL   AGENCIES 

Information  regarding  the  installation  of  vocational 
guidance  departments  in  city  schools  is  so  incomplete 
and  so  unreliable  that  it  is  worthy  of  consideration  only 
because  it  is  indicative  of  a  genuine  interest  in  the  idea 
and  the  ideals  of  vocational  guidance  and  of  a  desire  on 
the  part  of  educators  to  make  a  start  by  incorporating 
this  new  phraseology  in  the  school  vocabulary  and  possibly 
also  in  the  school  curriculum.  In  June,  1914,  about 
fifty  cities  reported  the  organization  of  vocational  guid- 
ance in  connection  with  their  public  school  systems.  In 
1918,  Dr.  Ryan  made  a  post-card  inquiry  as  to  the  number 
of  schools  maintaining  "departments  or  bureaus  designed 
to  assist  young  persons  in  securing  employment."  The 
object  of  the  inquiry  was  definite  information,  for  war  use, 
as  to  the  extent  of  placement  work  in  connection  with 
high  schools.  His  inquiry  was  sent  to  10,400  high  schools ; 
5628  replied,  932  reported  vocational  bureaus,  employ- 
ment departments,  or  similar  devices  for  placing  pupils. 
A  considerable  number  of  those  reporting  were  getting 
their  first  experience  through  the  federal  farm  placement 
system  known  as  the  Boys'  Working  Reserve ;  53  explained 
that  their  emplojinent  work  was  confined  to  the  United 
States  Boys'  Working  Reserve.^ 

'  Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.,  "Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Public  School,"  Bureau 
of  Education,  Washington,  1919. 


38  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

So  much  for  statistical  data  on  the  progress  of  voca- 
tional guidance  between  1914  and  1919.  When  we  turn 
to  the  qualitative  facts  involved  in  the  establishment  of 
932  school  placement  bureaus  we  are  confronted  with  a 
dearth  of  information  and  a  rare  confusion  of  terms  : 

(1)  There  is  no  agreement  as  to  what  constitutes  voca- 
tional guidance.  Vocational  addresses  given  to  groups 
of  high  school  students  at  stated  intervals  constitute 
vocational  guidance  for  one  system.  The  teacher  who 
arranges  these  talks  is  often  mentioned  as  director  of 
vocational  guidance.  In  another  system,  the  same 
terminology  may  be  applied  to  occupational  informa- 
tion classes  or  to  individual  conferences  on  vocational 
choice. 

(2)  There  is  no  agreement  as  to  what  constitutes  voca- 
tional placement.  The  writer  has  visited  some  cities 
advertising  vocational  guidance  and  vocational  place- 
ment departments  in  charge  of  regularly  appointed 
vocational  advisers  only  to  find  that  vocational  advice 
was  included  under  the  general  advisory  duties  of  directors 
of  girls'  and  boys'  clubs,  or  advisers  for  boys  and  girls  along 
all  lines  of  guidance  —  educational,  moral,  social,  physical, 
etc.  Vocational  placement  was  Umited  to  the  placement 
of  school  boys  and  school  girls  where  they  might  be 
self-supporting  while  completing  their  education.  In 
such  cases  guidance  meant  helping  the  pupil  to  select  a 
position  which  would  give  him  or  her  the  best  opportunity 
to  progress  in  school.  Guidance  may  be  well  appUed  to 
this  type  of  advisory  work  and  placement  should  surely 
include  positions  offering  "student  aid,"  but  unless  the 
positions  be  selected  with  a  vocational  purpose  it  is 
difficult  to  see  how  "vocational"  can  legitimately  be 
applied  to  either  function.  At  the  other  extreme  of  place- 
ment departments  we  find  school  clerks  receiving  tele- 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE   EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      39 

phone  messages,  indicating  that  student  help  of  some  kind 
is  wanted,  and  posting  notices  on  the  bulletin  board  where 
students  who  desire  may  keep  informed  on  the  prospects 
of  employment.  Guidance  in  such  cases  is  entirely 
omitted ;  the  student  aid  feature  is  retained  but  there  is 
no  effort  to  include  a  vocational  element. 

(3)  There  is  no  definite  distinction  between  educational 
and  vocational  guidance,  nor  is  there  any  general  under- 
standing of  the  qualifications  necessary  for  conducting 
either  or  both  of  these  lines  of  work.  Much  of  the  work 
done  under  the  name  of  vocational  guidance  is  educational 
guidance  and  is  coming  more  and  more  to  be  so  recognized. 

(4)  There  is  no  uniformity  in  practice  regarding  the 
inclusion  of  placement  in  "Vocational  Guidance,"  and  no 
statistics  indicating  the  total  volume  of  placement  by 
school  bureaus  are  available. 

(5)  As  a  rule  there  is  no  centralization  of  labor  supply 
and  demand,  and  apparently  no  idea  that  such  centrali- 
zation is  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  "scientific  place- 
ment."    This  is  especially  true  of  our  city  high  schools. 

(6)  In  no  instance  has  guidance  and  placement  been 
extended  to  all  the  city's  boys  and  girls.  It  is  almost 
uniformly  confined  to  school  boys  and  girls  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  refuse  assistance  to  pupils  who  have  been  out 
of  school  for  any  length  of  time  or  to  boys  and  girls  who 
are  strangers  in  the  city. 

(7)  There  is  no  central  organization  equipped  for  the 
collection  and  dissemination  of  facts  relative  to  the  suc- 
cess and  failure  of  vocational  guidance,  no  group  of  expert 
advisers  and  organizers  prepared  to  aid  systems  in  install- 
ing vocational  guidance  departments  which  are  adapted 
to  local  needs  and  at  the  same  time  based  on  the  best 
national  experience,  and  no  agency  through  which  accurate 
data  as  to  present  status  can  be  secured. 


40  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

Immediately  after  the  completion  of  three  years  of 
research  in  vocational  guidance  for  the  Seattle  Public 
Schools  (1917)  seven  months  were  spent  visiting  twenty- 
five  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  country  which  had  reported 
the  operation  of  vocational  guidance,  vocational  place- 
ment, or  similar  departments.  The  following  year,  just 
prior  to  entering  the  federal  service,  a  second  national 
tour  was  made.  A  few  school  systems  were  found  which 
had  programs  for  vocational  guidance;  a  few  officials 
were  designated  as  "directors  of  Vocational  Guidance"; 
several  were  making,  or  had  made,  excellent  research 
studies  of  a  semi-vocational  nature,  including  elimination, 
retardation,  and  the  occupations  entered  by  "drop  outs," 
but  not  a  single  school  system  was  found  which  had  the 
remotest  idea  of  what  constituted  an  all-inclusive  system 
of  vocational  guidance  reaching  every  boy  and  girl  in 
its  domain  distinct  from,  but  closely  cooperating  with, 
educational  guidance ;  and  finally,  at  the  close  of  school 
life,  offering  the  educational  system  an  opportunity  to 
function  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  through  a 
centralized  placement  department.  Nor  do  I  know  of 
more  than  two  or  three  cities  in  the  United  States  today 
which  have  any  such  inclusive  plan  in  operation.  A  num- 
ber of  individual  schools  were  found  in  which  very  excel- 
lent guidance  was  offered  by  one  or  more  persons  who  had 
had  practical  experience  with  business  life.  Quite  a  large 
number  of  technical  and  commercial  high  schools  were 
doing  satisfactory  placement  for  their  own  pupils.  Several 
departments  of  attendance  were  offering  guidance  and 
employment  assistance  to  such  pupils  as  came  to  the  office 
for  employment  certification,  while  the  best  organized 
continuation  schools  were  assuming  the  responsibility 
for  both  guidance  and  placement  without  official  titles 
or  financial  recognition. 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      41 

Minneapolis.  Minneapolis  offers  one  of  the  best 
illustrations  of  the  wide  breach  existing  between  paper 
programs  from  which  quantitative  data  are  secured  and 
actual  operating  facts  acquired  by  local  observation  and 
analysis.  The  Vocational  Survey,  1913,  recommended 
the  establishment  of  a  Department  of  Vocational  Guid- 
ance with  a  very  complete  program  of  operation.  Such 
a  department  was  estabhshed  comprising  School  Census, 
School  Attendance,  Employment  Certification,  Voca- 
tional Guidance,  Placement  and  Employment  Supervision. 
A  director  was  appointed,  as  were  also  vocational  teachers 
and  home  visitors.  Several  years  have  passed  since  this 
program  was  drawn  up.  During  this  time  a  number  of 
visits  have  been  made  to  Minneapolis  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  progressive  development  of  the  work.  The 
school  census  is  unusually  well  handled,  so  also  is  school 
attendance  and  employment  certification,  but  I  have  not 
yet  been  able  to  discover  any  real  system  of  vocational 
guidance  in  connection  with  the  public  schools,  nor  have 
those  most  interested  in  the  work  ever  assumed  that 
there  was  such  a  department  functioning  in  the  manner 
that  was  anticipated  when  the  program  was  made.  There 
have  been  three  or  four  changes  in  directors  and  one  or 
two  other  rather  serious  handicaps,  but  the  fact  remains 
that  the  Minneapolis  school  system,  with  one  of  the  most 
complete  programs  ever  instituted  and  under  what  pos- 
sibly have  been  the  most  favorable  conditions  ever  offered, 
has  not  developed  a  real  vocational  guidance  department. 

The  results  of  "guidance"  are  intangible.  No  one  of 
us  is  able  to  know  what  real  assistance  has  been  rendered 
those  who  seek  our  offices  for  advice  on  occupational  life. 
There  is,  however,  one  very  accurate  test  by  which  we  may 
judge  the  results  of  guidance  offered  during  the  period  of 
school  life :  if  we  are  operating  a  placement  department 


42  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

and  if  our  knowledge  of  occupational  life  and  our  methods 
of  guidance  are  such  that  they  have  won  the  confidence  of 
our  pupils,  they  will  instinctively  turn  to  us  for  placement 
at  the  close  of  the  school  days.  If  the  small  number  of 
pupils  who  are  introduced  to  business  houses  through 
school  departments  indicates  that  guidance  and  place- 
ment workers  know  how  to  analyze  the  personnel  of 
different  houses  and  use  selective  abihty  in  recommend- 
ing young  workers,  then  business  houses  too  will  instinc- 
tively turn  to  the  school  when  they  are  in  need  of  a  second 
or  third  employee.  As  a  general  rule,  then,  we  may  say 
that  whenever  school  systems  have  instituted  departments 
of  guidance  and  placement,  and  have  supposedly  been  in 
operdtion  two  or  more  years  and  have  failed  to  he  able  to  pool 
both  the  labor  supply  and  demand,  at  least  in  so  far  as  it  con- 
cerns the  supply  of  labor  coming  directly  from  the  school- 
room to  industry,  they  have  fa/iled  to  be  successful  depart- 
ments. Placement  statistics  for  Minneapolis  for  the  last 
year  show  that  but  1800  placements  have  been  made 
through  the  combined  efforts  of  the  central  office  and  the 
various  high  schools.  Obviously  the  vocational  depart- 
ment of  the  Minneapolis  schools  is  not  functioning. 

Minneapolis  has  been  mentioned  in  detail  because,  if 
all  the  facts  were  available,  it  has  probably  made  as  good 
if  not  a  better  record  than  other  cities.  The  possible  and 
probable  reason  why  such  well-programmed  ventures 
have  shown  such  poor  results  will  be  discussed  later. 
At  this  point  it  is  well  to  note  that  none  of  the  school 
placement  bureaus  have  made  what  could  be  called  a 
minimum  of  success  of  the  placement  feature  of  vocational 
guidance.  It  is  fair  to  assume,  therefore,  that  they  have 
also  failed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  advisory  features. 

Omaha.  The  Omaha  bureau  operated  by  the  Associa- 
tion of  Collegiate  Alumnse  under  the  Board  of  Education 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      43 

was  apparently  well  handled,  yet  its  report  for  1917  indi- 
cated only  510  new  applicants  for  advice  and  assistance, 
275  placements,  and  657  calls  from  employers.  The  bureau 
did  a  limited  piece  of  work  well,  but  for  a  number  of  reasons 
its  efficiency  was  continually  kept  at  the  minimum. 

Place- 
ments 


16,000 
8.000 

4,000 
2,000 

1,000 

s 

1 

1 

1 

1 

200 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Boston 

1913 

Cleveland 
1915 

Omaha 
1917 

Minneapolis 
July  1,  1918 

to 
June  30,  1919 

Cincinnati 
July  1.  1918 

to 
June  30,  1919 

Chart  showing  comparison  in  number  of  placements  in  five  cities 
during  1913,  1915,  1917,  and  1919. 


Boston.^  The  Boston  bureau,  organized  in  1912,  had 
in  1919  hardly  scratched  the  surface  of  the  junior  employ- 
ment problem  in  that  city  and  still  it  would  be  hard 
to  find  a  more  comprehensive  or  more  logical  vocational 

>  Boston : 

Brewer,  John  M.,  "Vocational  Guidance  Movement:  Ita  Problems  and  Possi- 
bilities," New  York,  Macmillan,  1918. 

Brooks,  Stratton  D.,  "Vocational  Guidance  in  Boston  Public  Schools,"  Address 
at  First  National  Conference  on  Vocational  Guidance,  Boston,  1910.  AUo  in 
Bloomfield's  "Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,"  pp.  83-91. 


44  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

guidance  program  than  that  contained  in  the  Report  of 
the  Superintendent  for  1913.  The  more  one  reads  this 
report,  the  more  one  feels  that  it  offers  very  Httle  oppor- 
tunity for  either  destructive  or  constructive  criticism. 
It  is  a  program,  a  very  complete,  very  logical,  very  progressive 
program,  for  vocational  guidance  in  all  its  phases.  The 
fault  lies  in  the  fact  that  to  too  large  an  extent  it  has 
always  remained  a  program.  I  know  of  no  better  class 
assignment  for  college  and  normal  schools  than  analysis 
of  this  Boston  report  of  1913  as  the  basis  of  a  complete 
practical  program  for  vocational  guidance  as  we  are 
hoping  to  develop  it  today.  The  superintendent's 
"  next  steps  in  vocational  counsel "  foretells  the  value 
of  a  placement  bureau  "  when  compulsory  continuation 
schools  are  organized "  and  indicates  full  realization 
on  his  part  that  the  continuation  schools  are  to  be  the 
pivotal  point  for  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  "  the 
boys  on  the  fence."  The  continuation  schools  have  come, 
but  the  "  next  steps  "  have  not  been  taken  except  in  so  far 
as  they  have  been  effected  by  the  principals  and  teachers 
in  charge  of  the  continuation  schools.  There  has  been  no 
central  leadership  such  as  was  suggested  in  this  excellent 
report;  on  the  other  hand,  a  recent  report  on  placement 
of  pupils  in  the  continuation  schools  indicates  that  the 
Boston  Placement  Bureau  has  secured  positions  for  only 
1.8  per  cent  of  the  pupils  enrolled  in  those  schools.^ 

Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.,  "Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Public  Schools,"  Wash- 
ington, Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  1918,  No.  24,  Boston,  pp.  83-84. 

"Vocational  Counsel,"  reprinted  from  the  Report  of  the  Boston  High  Schools, 
1913. 

Vocational  Guidance  Bureau,  Boston,  "Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Work  of 
the  Vocational  Guidance  Bureau  of  Boston,"  Boston,  1915. 

Greener,  George  C,  "An  Experimentation  in  Vocational  Guidance  and  Place- 
ment." Reprint  from  the  February  and  March,  1919,  Industrial  Arts  Magazine. 
This  is  an  excellent  article  containing  statistics  on  Boston  wage  earners  and  other 
information  desirable  for  teachers  or  placement  workers. 

1  Brewer,  "Vocational  Guidance  Movements,"  p.  109. 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      45 

The  Boston  Placement  Bureau  was  organized  in  1912 
as  a  cooperative  agency  —  social  agencies  and  the  public 
schools.  Its  first  annual  report  contains  the  following 
information : 

Placement  Bureau.  Brief  statistical  summary,  May  20, 
1912-June  30,  1913. 

1.  Total  number  of  schools  represented      .     .  90 

Elementary 66 

High 12 

Industrial 2 

Parochial  and  miscellaneous 10 

2.  Total  number  of  firms  investigated  and  ap- 

proved        1034 

3.  Total   number   of   applications   from   em- 

ployers       941 

4.  Total  number  of  1912  graduates  and  1912- 

13  "drop  outs"  followed  up  and  re- 
ported to  masters  of  schools     ...  431 

5.  Total  number  of  placements  of  1912  grad- 

uates and  1912-13  drop  outs    .     .     .  279 

The  author  has  beenpresenting  Boston  facts  for  1912-13 
when  guidance  and  placement  was  largely  under  the  direc- 
tion of  private  agencies  rather  than  under  the  direction  of 
the  public  schools.  The  author  visited  the  Boston  schools 
several  times  between  1912  and  1920.  In  view  of  the 
program  of  1912-13  and  in  the  light  of  facts  regarding  the 
progress  of  the  program  of  vocational  guidance  and 
placement  during  the  first  year  of  operation,  some  facts 
are  now  offered  which  were  noted  on  the  author's  first 
visit  to  Boston  after  entering  the  federal  service,  when  most 
of  the  guidance  and  placement  instituted  in  1912  under 
private  auspices  had  passed  under  the  control  of  the 
public  schools. 


46  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

The  following  is  quoted  from  notes  taken  on  December 
16,  1918,  during  conference  with  those  who  are  in  charge 
of  the  work : 

"guidance  is  available  to  all  children  of  the  Boston  public  schools 
who  seek  its  assistance  and  advice,  but  not  available  for  private 
schools  or  boys  and  girls  who  come  from  out  of  town." 

"We  will  not  permit  boys  and  girls  who  come  in  to  Boston  from 
other  cities  to  register  here.  They  should  go  to  the  federal  oflBces 
and  stay  there." 

"1200  boys  and  girls  used  the  bureau  in  1917." 

"Boys  and  girls  under  21  must  get  a  new  certificate  every  time 
they  change  occupations.  54,861  certificates  were  issued  in  1917. 
Some  were  renewals." 

"The  federal  and  state  offices  send  boys  and  girls  under  16  up 
here  and  we  expect  to  take  care  of  them  if  they  have  not  been  out 
of  school  over  one  year." 

At  the  federal  public  employment  offices  we  found  some 
interesting  facts  relative  to  junior  placement : 

(1)  Approximately  30  per  cent  of  women  applicants 
were  girls  under  21  years  of  age,  all  of  whom  would  be 
obliged  to  go  to  the  school  ofl&ce  to  secure  employment 
certificates  before  they  could  enter  upon  employment. 

(2)  Examiners  in  charge  had  no  special  knowledge  of 
Boston  educational  agencies,  of  the  educational  require- 
ments for  entering  positions,  of  the  advanced  study  neces- 
sary for  progress  in  the  different  lines,  nor  of  the  funda- 
mental requirements  for  vocational  training  of  different 
kinds.  Advice  was  eagerly  sought  on  a  number  of  prob- 
lems involving  combined  knowledge  of  education  and 
employment.  What  could  be  done  with  the  young  girls 
who  came  back  time  and  time  again  because  they  fell 
below  the  minimum  wage  standard?  One  girl  who  had 
commenced  to  work  at  fourteen  had  just  secured  her  sixty- 
fifth  position.  She  was  then  nineteen  years  of  age.  Seven- 
teen girls  had  been  sent  to  the  same  position  in  an  effort 


EFFORTS  TO   SOLVE   EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      47 

to  meet  the  needs  of  the  employer  and  the  last  girl  had 
just  been  refused,  A  visit  to  the  employer  indicated 
that  the  type  of  young  girl  needed  required  careful  selective 
ability  but  that  he  was  not  particularly  hard  to  please. 
The  type  of  placement  clerk  handling  adult  women  does 
not  often  have  the  discriminating  ability  essential  to 
the  selection  of  these  younger  workers.  One  very  con- 
scientious placement  clerk  was  all  at  sea  regarding  advice 
for  bright  young  girls  sixteen  to  nineteen  years  of  age 
who  were  "  too  good  "  for  factory  work  but  who  had  had 
no  office  training.  She  was  advising  such  girls  to  go  to 
a  business  college  and  prepare  for  stenographic  positions. 
Together  we  went  over  her  record  cards  only  to  discover 
that  there  was  not  one  single  instance  in  which  such 
advice  had  been  given  where  the  girl  had  gone  beyond  the 
grammar  school !  Advice  on  such  problems  should  be 
given  by  the  educational  system  or  at  least  by  those  who 
are  thoroughly  informed  on  educational  subjects. 

(3)  In  the  men's  office  we  learned  that  during  the  first 
two  weeks  of  December  approximately  800  boys,  14  to 
18  years  old,  had  applied  for  positions  and  237  had  been 
placed.  November  statistics  showed  312  boys  placed. 
Placement  records  indicated  that  nearly  all  of  these  boys 
were  Boston  grammar  school  graduates  and  quite  a  number 
had  been  through  the  second  year  of  high  school.  All  were 
obliged  to  go  to  the  school  department  for  employment 
certification.  Examiners  reported  boys  from  14  to  18 
exceptionally  difficult  to  handle  and  regretted  that  there' 
was  not  some  distinct  provision  made  for  them  where 
they  could  be  registered  by  men  who  understood  their 
peculiar  needs  and  tendencies.  In  addition  to  the  evil 
results  of  high  war  wages  there  was  constant  drifting 
from  job  to  job  with  criticism  on  every  position  which  they 
attempted  to  fill.     Very  few  realized  the  importance  of 


48  JXINflOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

steady  work,  and  most  of  them  had  no  conception  of  what 
constituted  a  good  job. 

In  view  of  the  elaborate  vocational  information  pro- 
gram of  1913  whereby  elementary  pupils  were  to  be  given 
the  benefit  of  courses  in  this  subject  one  may  well  ask : 
Is  vocational  guidance  functioning  in  the  Boston  public 
schools?  In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  placement  bureau 
has  been  in  operation  since  1912  and  is  registering  about 
1200  per  year,  whereas  an  ordinary  adult  public  employ- 
ment office  will  register  approximately  the  same  number 
per  month,  one  may  well  ask:  Is  the  Boston  Vocation 
Bureau  functioning  efficiently?  Did  it  have  a  market 
in  the  earlier  days  and  lose  it,  or  has  it  never  been  able 
to  create  one?  If  the  Boston  public  schools  want  to 
know  how  education  is  functioning  today,  they  cannot  find 
out  from  their  own  vocation  bureau  but  are  forced  to  go 
to  the  public  oflGices  which  are  placing  adult  workers. 

The  Boston  bureau  in  its  inception  was  the  beneficiary 
of  unquestioned  leadership,  but  the  sum  total  of  its 
experiences  seems  to  indicate  that  it  has  deteriorated  in 
vision,  in  scope,  in  purpose,  in  methods,  and  in  the  prac- 
tical realization  of  its  earlier  ideals.  Perusal  of  the  printed 
material  from  the  days  of  Mr.  Parson's  initial  experience 
down  to  the  present  shows  a  much  broader  vision,  a 
more  inclusive  scope,  a  more  definite  purpose,  and  more 
scientific  methods  in  1912-13  than  anything  which  Boston 
is  operating  today.  The  vocational  guidance  and  placement 
system  of  the  Boston  schools  seems  to  have  incased  itself 
in  a  big  educational  thermos  bottle  from  which  it  will  not 
emerge  and  which  it  has  hermetically  sealed  to  the  great 
majority  of  Boston  youths,  especially  to  those  who  have  be- 
come contaminated  by  one  year  of  experience  with  "life." 

New  York  City.  While  Boston  was  centralizing  many 
of   her   philanthropic    beginnings    within    her    academic 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      49 

thermos  bottle,  New  York  City  was  proceeding  in  exactly 
the  opposite  direction.  The  vocational  guidance  move- 
ment in  New  York  City  is  susceptible  neither  to  analysis 
nor  to  synthesis.  H.  G.  Wells'  description  of  "  heavenly 
beginnings  "  —  a  "  countless  number  of  heavenly  begin- 
nings "  —  is  strangely  applicable  to  the  inception,  prog- 
ress, and  present  status  of  vocational  guidance  and 
placement  in  New  York.  And  they  have  been  "  heavenly 
beginnings."  Some  very  superior  advisory  work  has 
been  done  by  the  philanthropic  organizations  of  New  York 
City.^  Several  of  these  organizations  do  no  placement 
work.  The  public  schools  have  made  some  excellent 
beginnings  but  have  been  no  more  successful  than  other 
agencies  in  centralizing  their  efforts.  The  work  of  the 
Boys'  High  School  and  of  the  Vocational  Guidance  Asso- 
ciation of  Brooklyn  have  acquired  a  national  reputation 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  were  operated  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.   E.   W.   Weaver.^    The  Washington  Irving 

»  New  York : 

Barrows,  Alice  P.,  "Vocational  Guidance  Survey,"  New  York  City,  Public 
Education  Association,  1913,  Bulletin  No.  9. 

Odencrantz,  Louise  C,  "Placement  Work  for  Women  and  Girls  in  New  York 
City,"  New  York,  Vocational  Guidance  Association,  1915. 

Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.,  "Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Public  Schools,"  Wash- 
ington, Bureau  of  Education,  1918,  Bulletin  No.  24,  New  York  City,  pp.  87-89, 
93-94. 

Stevens,  Bertha  M.,  "The  Placement  of  Average  Children,"  New  York  Voca- 
tional Guidance  Association,  Proceedings  of  Second  Conference,  1912,  pp.  18-20. 

United  Hebrew  Charities  of  the  City  of  New  York,  Report  of  Committee  on 
Vocational  Guidance,  New  York,  1917. 

Vocational  Guidance,  Report  of  Committee  on  High  Schools  and  Training 
Schools,  New  York  City,  Board  of  Education,  1914. 

Excerpts  in  Bloomfield's  "Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,"  pp.  288-345. 

Women's  Municipal  League  of  the  City  of  New  York,  "When  All  Life  is  Before 
You,"  in  Women  and  the  City's  Work.  Leaflet  publications,  vol.  3,  No.  33,  1918. 
Summarizes  study  of  42  agencies  in  New  York  City  engaged  in  placement  and 
vocational  guidance  work. 

'  No  student  of  vocational  guidance  and  placement  can  afford  to  be  ignorant 
of  the  work  of  E.  W.  Weaver,  who  has  contributed  more  than  his  share  to  the  progress 
of  both  the  theory  and  practice  of  vocational  guidance,  and  who  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  leading  authorities  on  this  subject  today. 
E 


50  JUNIOR  WAGE   EARNERS 

High  School  graduates  approximately  800  girls  annually. 
In  1918  it  placed  about  250  through  its  own  bureau. 
The  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  girls  operates  a  bureau 
for  its  own  graduates.  This  was  affiliated  with  the  federal 
service  during  the  war.  There  are  many  other  similar 
bureaus  in  New  York.  Miss  Louise  Odencrantz,  who 
has  been  closely  associated  with  the  development  of 
junior  offices  in  New  York,  and  who  was  one  of  the  sponsors 
for  the  State  Juvenile  Employment  law  in  the  November, 
1915,  issue  of  Manual  Training  and  Vocational  Educa- 
tion, lists  sixty-two  organizations  doing  some  sort  of 
philanthropic  placement  work ;  forty-six  in  an  incidental 
way,  and  sixteen  in  a  more  or  less  systematic  manner. 
She  closes  her  presentation  of  conditions  as  follows: 

"The  mere  fact  tfiat  so  many  organizations  with  such  widely 
differing  objects  have  found  it  necessary  or  expedient  to  divert  a 
part  of  their  Umited  time,  funds,  and  efforts  to  such  work  emphasizes 
the  need  of  some  organized  effort  in  this  direction. 

"Moreover,  the  settlement  worker  is  usually  just  about  as  limited 
in  her  opportunities  for  finding  an  opening  for  a  girl  as  the  girl  herself. 
The  result  is  that  a  girl  who  happens  to  apply  to  a  social  worker  who 
knows  a  foreman  in  a  brush  factory  thus  becomes  a  brush  maker." 

Miss  Odencrantz 's  statement  admits  of  no  comment. 
The  situation  has  not  changed  materially  since  1915. 
There  is  now  a  State  Employment  Service  authorized  to 
provide  juvenile  employment  offices,  but  little  has  yet 
been  done  by  the  state  authorities  toward  the  establish- 
ment of  such  juvenile  offices,  to  say  nothing  of  any  attempt 
to  solve  the  entire  junior  problem.  State  development 
in  this  direction  has  been  limited  by  lack  of  funds,  re- 
striction as  to  number  and  location  of  offices,  and  lack  of 
trained  personnel  which  knows  the  character  of  the  "  gap  " 
between  school  and  industry,  why  it  exists,  and  how  to 
bridge  it. 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      51 

Prior  to  the  war  there  was  a  movement  under  way  to 
coordinate  the  non-commercial  employment  agencies,  and 
the  juvenile  offices  were  beginning  to  realize  the  importance 
and  necessity  for  such  a  scheme.  The  labor  problem 
involved  in  the  equipping  of  our  military  machine  required 
centralization  of  the  labor  supply  and  demand  under 
some  national  organization.  This  organization  was  the 
United  States  Employment  Service.  The  juvenile  offices 
responded  patriotically  to  the  demand  for  consolidation 
under  the  federal  government,  although  after  events  indi- 
cated that  the  government  had  nothing  to  offer  in  the 
shape  of  trained  leadership  while  the  efficiency  of  the 
offices  for  their  original  purposes  was  seriously  handi- 
capped by  certain  changes  in  location  of  offices,  personnel, 
etc.  The  task  for  New  York  today  is  to  find  some  one 
with  a  sufficiently  inclusive  grasp  of  its  junior  employ- 
ment needs  to  take  hold  of  the  vast  problems  presented 
and  combine  all  the  splendid  beginnings  into  one  city-wide 
organization  responding  to  all  the  needs  of  all  the  city's 
youth  without  sacrificing  the  benefits  of  the  countless 
movements  which  have  been  so  helpful  to  the  children  of 
the  various  districts. 

Chicago.  Vocational  guidance  and  placement  have 
received  considerable  attention  in  Chicago.  The  Women's 
Clubs,  assisted  by  the  Association  of  Commerce,  instituted 
the  movement  which  was  privately  financed  from  1911 
to  1916,  when  it  became  a  part  of  the  public  school  system. 
Although  the  present  effort  is  designated  by  the  Board  of 
Education  as  a  "  Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance  "  and 
the  official  in  charge  as  "  Vocational  Adviser  for  the 
Chicago  Public  Schools,"  the  Bureau  comes  in  contact 
with  comparatively  few  of  Chicago's  school  pupils  and 
then  only  such  as  are  under  control  of  the  compulsory 
attendance  law  and  therefore  seek  its  office  for  employ- 


52  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

ment  certification.  Commercial  placements  in  the 
Chicago  high  schools  have  been  fairly  well  centralized 
through  the  supervisor  of  commercial  education  for  the 
city.  So  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain  the  oflB.cial 
handling  this  work  has  won  and  is  holding  the  confidence  of 
the  business  houses.  The  technical  high  schools  also 
have  made  a  reputation  for  selective  ability  in  placing 
their  pupils.  The  main  difficulty  in  Chicago  is  the  lack 
of  realization  of  the  necessity  for  systematic  guidance 
and  of  the  value  of  a  centralized  placement  system  which 
provides  an  opportunity  for  guidance  to  function  and  affords 
an  agency  by  means  of  which  the  market  value  of  the 
educational  product  can  be  accurately  estimated  and 
suggestions  for  the  reorganization  or  modification  of 
school  curricula  be  transmitted  to  administration  ofiicials, 
Chicago,  like  New  York  City,  has  many  "  heavenly 
beginnings  "  with  "  no  leading,  no  correlation,  no  plan."  ^ 
Cincinnati.  The  Vocational  Bureau  and  Placement 
Ofl&ce  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Schools  is  the  only  bureau 
of  its  type  in  operation.  Research  has  always  been  the 
dominant  factor.  Careful  mental  and  physical  tests, 
accompanied  by  accurate  statistical  records,  have  been  its 
methods  of  ascertaining  the  comparative  influences  of 
work  life  and  of  school  life  upon  juvenile  workers.  Al- 
though this  investigation  has,  of  necessity,  been  narrow 
in  scope  and  limited  in  results,  it  has  afforded  some 
valuable  fundamental  information,  and  its  methods  have 

•  Information  on  the  Chicago  bureau  may  be  found  in  : 

Bloomfield's  "  Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,"  "School  and  the  Working 
Child,"  Breckinridge  and  Abbott,  pp.  485-503. 

Ibid.,  "The  American  Child  in  the  Stockyards  District,"  Montgomery,  pp. 
454-484. 

Ibid.,  "Opportunities  in  School  and  Industry  for  Children  of  the  Stockyarda 
District,"  Talbert,  pp.  396-453. 

Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.,  "  Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Public  Schools,"  Washing- 
ton, Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  1918,  No.  24,  p.  89. 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      53 

been  far  more  scientific  than  those  in  vogue  in  most 
school  bureaus.  Placement  records  for  Cincinnati  are 
available  from  the  date  of  inception  and  are  very  valuable 
as  definite  proof  of  the  very  limited  amount  of  placement 
done  by  even  the  best  of  the  school  bureaus ;  of  the  failure 
of  such  bureaus  to  be  of  assistance  to  the  majority  of 
young  wage  earners  "  at  the  port  of  entry  " ;  of  the  lack 
of  confidence  which  older  pupils  seem  to  have  in  their 
ability  to  advise  and  place  eflBiciently,  and  of  their  failure 
to  function  as  agencies  for  readjustment  and  replacement.^ 

Table  I 


Certificates 
Granted 

Number  Regis- 
tered IN  Place- 
ment Office 

Number  of 
Placements 

1915-16      .     .     . 
1916-17      .     .     . 
1917-18     .     .     . 
1918-19      .     .     . 
191^20      .     .     . 

1,888 
2,102 
2,845^ 
2,468 
912 

1,199 
986 
1,074  ^ 
1,197 

328 

741 
848 
370- 
1,022 
346 

10,215                     4,784 

3,827 

Table  I  indicates  that  approximately  36  per  cent  of 
certified  pupils  have  secured  their  positions  through  the 
bureau,  while  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  use- 
fulness of  the  bureau  as  an  agency  for  pooling  the  junior 
labor  supply  and  distributing  it  economically  and  effec- 

1  Statistical  information  secured  from  the  Cincinnati  Bureau,  December  16, 
1919.  The  most  complete  information  on  the  organization,  operation,  and  service 
of  this  department  is  found  in  : 

Bloomfield's  "  Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,"  pp.  129-142. 

Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.,  "  Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Public  Schools,"  Washing- 
ton, Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  1018,  No.  24. 

WooUey,  Helen  T,  "  Charting  Childhood  in  Cincinnati,"  Cincinnati  Child  Labor 
Department  of  the  Public  Schools,  The  Survey,  August,  1913,  also  in  Bloomfield's 
"Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,"  pp.  220-233. 

Fischer,  Charlotte  R.,  "  Mental  and  Physical  Measurements  of  Working  Chil- 
dren," Princeton,  N.  J.,  Psychological  Review  Co.,  1914,  Vol.  XVIII,  No.  L. 


54  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

tively  at  the  source  has  been  accomphshed.  The  same 
fact  is  discernible  in  all  of  our  school  bureaus,  although 
few  have  records  which  afford  definite  proof  of  the  extent 
of  the  validity  of  the  charge. 

Table  II  gives  us  a  total  placement,  covering  four  years 
and  four  months,  of  4791,  3382  being  15  and  16  years  of 
age  or  the  ages  included  in  the  compulsory  education 
laws.  Comparison  of  placement  statistics  year  by  year 
is  of  little  value,  as  the  industrial  conditions  have  been  so 
varied  during  the  period  under  discussion  that  many 
unavailable  factors  would  have  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration before  legitimate  conclusion  could  be  drawn 
relative  to  the  increasing  or  decreasing  influence  of  the 
bureau  as  a  placement  agency.  We  are,  however,  war- 
ranted in  assuming  that  four  years  of  research  has  had 
little  or  no  influence  in  the  advancement  of  scientific 
placement  methods  which  tend  to  win  the  confidence  of 
Cincinnati  junior  workers  or  of  Cincinnati  business  houses. 
The  Cincinnati  bureau  has  tabulated  statistics  which 
indicate  that  the  median  wage  of  boys  and  girls  placed 
by  the  bureau  is  higher  than  the  median  of  those  who 
secure  their  positions  either  for  themselves  or  through 
other  agencies.  As  we  have  seen  no  study  similar  to 
this  and  have  often  desired  to  secure  statistics  along 
the  same  line,  it  is  worthy  of  mention  for  those  who  may 
be  interested  in  the  same  problem.  A  number  of  junior 
placement  ofl&ces  are  attempting  to  secure  data  on  this 
subject  and  it  may  be  well  to  issue  a  warning  regarding 
the  danger  of  incorrect  interpretation  of  statistical  data 
without  sufficient  general  knowledge  of  the  type  of 
applicant  placed  by  the  bureau  relative  to  the  type  which 
seeks  its  own  position,  and  without  making  due  allow- 
ance for  industrial  conditions  which  alter  the  ability  of 
young   wage  earners  to   secure  positions  more  or   less 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM     55 


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66  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

readily  without  assistance  of  any  kind.  At  the  present 
time  we  have  one  office  in  which  nearly  all  the  place- 
ments of  the  very  young  average  a  lower  wage  than  for 
those  who  seek  their  own  positions.  Local  investigation 
revealed  that  the  bureau  was  best  known  by  the  various 
social  agencies  to  which  those  who  are  below  the  minimum 
of  efficiency  apply  and  who  were  sent  by  them  to  the 
junior  placement  bureau.  Tests  indicate  that  efficiency 
is  below  normal  and  lower  salaries  are  accepted.  In 
this  city  the  higher  class  of  wage  earner  is  in  such  demand 
that  no  assistance  is  necessary  in  securing  positions ;  all 
are  readily  placed  "  at  the  gate." 

3.     BUSINESS   ORGANIZATIONS 

Business  men's  interest  in  the  vocational  guidance 
movement  has  been  of  two  types :  (1)  general  apprecia- 
tion of  the  idea  of  vocational  guidance  and  the  necessity 
for  the  school  functioning  as  a  more  efficient  selective 
institution,  (2)  the  practical  realization  that  immature 
minds  are  too  often  the  prey  of  radicalism  and  the  cause 
of  excessive  labor  turnover.  Interest  of  this  type  has 
resulted  in  various  organizations  assuming  the  initiative 
in  the  installation  of  vocational  guidance  departments 
which  have  later  been  turned  over  to  the  schools.  Chicago 
affords  an  excellent  example  of  this  type.  The  National 
Association  of  Corporation  Schools,  and  to  some  extent 
the  National  Association  of  Employment  Managers,  has 
taken  a  more  definite,  more  scientific,  and  more  pro- 
fessional interest  in  studying  the  problem  first  hand. 
The  inability  of  education  to  take  the  initiative  in  solv- 
ing the  intensive  training  problem  due  to  war  pressure 
increased  the  active  interest  of  such  organizations,  and 
it  is  only  fair  to  admit  that  leadership  along  the  lines  of 
practical  guidance  is  now   coming  from  the  National 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      57 

Association  of  Corporation  Schools  rather  than  from 
the  public  schools.  The  best  available  material  in  print 
today  on  practical  vocational  guidance  is  found  in  the 
reports  of  the  National  Association  of  Corporation 
Schools.  Their  discussions  afford  much  helpful  sug- 
gestion for  educational  systems. 

4.     PUBLIC    EMPLOYMENT   OFFICES 

No  historical  outline  of  the  development  of  the  voca- 
tional guidance  movement  is  complete  which  fails  to 
include  the  general  interest  taken  by  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  Public  Employment  Offices  and  the  few  instances 
in  which  intelligent  local  interest  has  culminated  in 
practical  placement  bureaus.  Review  of  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  American  Association  of  Public  Employment 
Offices  from  December,    1913,   to  the  present  indicates 

^  that  the  problem  of  the  young  wage  earner  has  never 
been  entirely  neglected  by  public  employment  officials,* 
but  the  responsibility  for  guidance  and  placement  has 
ever  been  recognized  as  a  cooperative  function  shared 
alike  by  the  educator  and  the  placement  worker  and 

.  that,  all  things  taken  into  consideration,*  the  one  office 
which  has  probably  done  the  best  junior  placement  work 
in  the  United  States  is  a  public  employment  office,'  al- 
though it  was  organized  under  private  auspices.  I  refer 
to  the\ Girls'  Vocational  Bureau  of  Cleveland,  which  was 
instituted  by  the  Consumers'  League  of  that  city  in 
December,  1908,  operated  privately  for  six  years,  and 
on  July  1,  1915,  made  a  part  of  the  Cleveland  system 
of  labor  exchanges,  the  state  subsidizing  it  to  the  extent 
of  $2500/  This  office  seems  to  me  to  be  thev  nearest 
approach  to  a  genuine  public  vocational  guidance  and 
placement  department  that  has  yet  been  attained./'  It 
has   been   reasonably  \  successful   in   centralizing   junior 


58 


JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


labor  supply  and  demand^  it  has  had  a  definite^  program 
for  vocational  information,  vocational  guidance  and 
placement,  and  it  has  cooperated  with  the  public  schools.- 


40,000 

1915 

80.000 

5 

1 

; 

20,000 

1 

% 

10,000 

1 

0 

1 

New 
IteKibtrstion 

Renewals 

Referred 
to 

Positions 

Placed 

Chart  showing  new  registrations,  renewals,  referred  to  positions  and 
placed  in  Girls'  Vocational  Bureau  in  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


It  has  ^  made  vocational  studies  and  has  done  efl&cient 
placement  work.  Its  report  for  1915  indicates  that  its 
usefulness  as  a  placement  bureau  far  outranks  that  of 
any  bureau  operating  under  educational  leadership. 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      59 

At  present  the  Girls'  Vocational  Bureau  is  operating 
in  connection  with  the  Municipal-State-Federal  Depart- 
ment for  Women ;  the  boys  have  been  provided  for  in 
the  men's  division.  xThose  in  charge/of  both  sexes  are 
'well-trained  placement  workers /with  the  educational  as 
well  as  the  industrial  viewpoint,  and  I  have  yet  to  see 
any  work  for  juniors  in  the  country  which  is  more  satis- 
factorily done.  '^  Steps  have  been  taken  toward  uniting  these 
junior  departments  with  the  public  school ''through  the 
Junior  Division  of  the  United  States  Employment  Serv- 
ice. Mr.  Alfred  P.  Fletcher,  Assistant  Superintendent  of 
Schools,  in  charge  of  Vocational  Work,  has  been  appointed 
Superintendent  of  Junior  Placement  for  the  city  of  Cleve- 
land, and  as  time  goes  on  and  the  work  of  the  government 
becomes  more  permanent  it  is  hoped  that  the  experience 
of  the  trained  women  who  are  handling  the  public  offices 
will  be  available  for  cooperation  with  the  educational 
workers  and  that  one  of  the  best  departments  in  the 
country  may  result. 

*  Some  state  legislation  has  been  enacted  which  gives 
prominence  to  the  importance  of  junior  placement.''  In 
1913  the  public  employment  offices  of  Boston  reported  a 
juvenile  department  and  in\1918  a  bill  was  introduced 
into  the  state  legislature  providing  for  state-wide  voca- 
tional guidance  under  the  State  Board  of  Education.  ^ 
Section  4  of  this  bill  declares  that 

"The  term  vocational  guidance,  wherever  used  in  this  bill,  shall 
mean  that  form  of  vocational  information  and  education  wliich 
deals  with  systematic  advice  concerning  the  vocational  capacity 
and  prospects  of  pupils,  the  choice  of  schools,  the  investigation  of 
occupational  advantages  and  disadvantages,  the  placement  in 
employment,  to  the  end  that  the  young  worker  may  be  guided  and 
directed  towards  progressive  efficiency,  both  as  a  worker  and  a 
citizen." 

>  The  bill  failed  of  enactment.  / 


60  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

New  York  State  employment  legislation  and  the 
development  of  juvenile  offices  under  state  supervision 
has  already  been  mentioned. 

\  Recently  enacted  legislation  in  Indiana  and  in  Kansas 
has  made  provision  for  placement  of  juniors./  Kansas 
provides  for  the  placement  of  "  men,  women,  and  juniors." 
Indiana  not  only  has  made  provision  for  guidance  and 
placement  but  has  permitted  her  employment  service  to 
assume  some  of  the  functions  usually  assigned  to  the  field 
of  education.  Both  states  have  followed  the  federal 
department  in  substituting  "  junior  "  for  "  juvenile  " 
and  in  extending  the  age  limit  to  21  years,^ 

Several  cities  in  states  which  have  never  made  any 
legal  provision  for  separate  junior  offices  operated  junior 
offices  during  the  war.  Boys  under  18  were  found  es- 
pecially difficult  to  handle  in  connection  with  over- 
crowded adult  offices,  and  economy  of  time  and  effort  led 
to  their  segregation.  Chicago  affords  a  good  illustration 
of  this  type  of  junior  placement  office.  Its  volume  of 
work  was  large.  Such  offices  were  a  part  of  the  Federal- 
State  Service  and  hence  were  a  part  of  the  United  States 
Employment  Service,  but  when  the  Junior  Division  was 
organized  the  majority  of  their  officials  were  not  trans- 
ferred to  the  Junior  Division  corps,  therefore  they  have 
not  been  rated  as  bona  fide  departments  of  the  Junior 
Employment  Service. 

In  1917  the  Children's  Code  Commission  of  Missouri 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  Missouri  in  normal 
times  approximately  15,000  industrially  untrained  children 
go  to  work  annually  at  14  years  of  age.  It  suggested  that 
youth  over  16  could  be  placed  through  adult  oflSces  and 

•  Classes  making  a  study  of  methods  of  organizing  and  administering  employ- 
ment systems  should  be  familiar  with  the  various  methods  in  use  in  this  and  other 
countries.  ^Indiana  is  the  only  state  which  has  an  Employment  Commission.  / 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM     61 

recommended  that  the  State  Employment  Service  or- 
ganize a  division  for  the  placement  of  the  juvenile  group 
of  wage  earners  between  14  and  16.  The  recommenda- 
tion was  not  included  in  the  report.^ 

5.    FEDERAL   GOVERNMENT 

Although  various  national  organizations,  notably  the 
National  Vocational  Guidance  Association,  the  National 
Education  Association,  the  Bureau  of  Education,  the 
Association  of  Collegiate  AlumnaB,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
K.  of  C,  Y.  M.  H.  A.,  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  American  Federation 
of  Labor,  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools, 
National  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  etc.,  have  taken 
considerable  interest  in  vocational  guidance  and  place- 
ment, their  interest  has  been  expressed  almost  entirely 
in  discussion  and  publications.  There  has  never  been 
any  concerted  national  interest  in  vocational  guidance 
and  placement  which  has  resulted  in  a  practical,  central- 
ized information  agency  prepared  to  offer  leadership  in 
collecting,  analyzing,  interpreting,  and  disseminating 
vocational  information  or  in  aiding  communities  to 
institute  local  departments.  Whatever  of  practical  value 
has  come  about  through  the  influence  of  any  national 
organization  has  been  very  largely  the  result  of  inspira- 
tional propaganda  combined  with  local  initiative,  or  of 
financial  contributions  due  to  interest  of  the  parent 
society  which  the  community  too  often  has  not  appre- 
ciated or  utilized  to  the  best  advantage.  Local  initiative 
assisted  and  guided  by  national  experience  might  have 
accomplished  much ;  or  financial  assistance  accompanied 
by  inspiration  and  wise  direction  might  have  resulted 

1  "Missouri  Children's  Code  Commission,"  a  complete  revision  of  the  laws  for 
the  welfare  of  Missouri  children,  Jefferson  City,  Mo.,  1919. 

"Recommendations  .  .  .  not  included  in  the  Code,"  pp.  64-65. 


62  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

equally  advantageously.  As  it  is,  most  local  ventures 
have  been  obliged  to  carry  the  burden  of  certain  in- 
herent weaknesses  which  have  handicapped  their  de- 
velopment and  tended  to  discredit  their  efforts.  There 
has  been  nothing  to  vitalize  the  movement.  It  has 
savored  too  much  of  a  philanthropic  or  social  service 
proposition  and  too  little  of  a  practical  commercial  ven- 
ture. Its  officials  have  been  social  rather  than  practical 
minded ;  have  been  uniformly  low  paid ;  have  lacked 
occupational  information,  ability  to  interpret  industry, 
and  foresight  in  anticipating  industrial  change.  Un- 
certainty regarding  permanency  of  the  service  has  made 
the  best  talent  unavailable.  Employers  have  been 
tolerant,  in  certain  instances  indulgent,  in  a  few  cases 
very  helpful,  but  they  have  never  been  enthusiastic 
and  have  never  had  much  confidence  in  ultimate  results. 
When  the  armistice  was  signed  the  situation  relative  to 
the  replacement  of  junior  war  workers  either  in  school 
or  in  industry  was  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  of 
reconstruction.  No  national  organization  was  prepared 
to  take  the  initiative  in  its  solution.  The  situation  at  the 
close  of  the  war  may  be  summarized  somewhat  as  follows  : 

(1)  There  had  been  much  interest  in  and  much  general 
discussion  on  vocational  guidance  and  placement,  dating 
from  1908. 

(2)  Many  educational  systems  had  instituted  "  some 
kind  of  vocational  guidance  program  "  —  many  of  these 
programs  were  excellent  but  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  progress  had  not  proceeded  beyond  the  program. 

(3)  No  school  system  had  been  able  to  attain  a  minimum 
of  success  in  vocational  guidance,  while  the  placement 
feature  was  either  entirely  omitted  or  too  small  in  volume 
to  merit  attention. 

(4)  No  school  system  had  had  suflficient  vision  to  open 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM     63 

its  bureau  to  all  the  city's  children.  After  years  of 
criticism  of  an  educational  policy  which  has  been  so  se- 
lective that  it  has  managed  to  eliminate  90  per  cent  of 
its  charges  before  completion  of  the  course,  educators 
deliberately  chose  to  institute  a  new  educational  agency 
based  on  the  same  type  of  class  distinctions  —  their 
vocational  guidance  and  placement  departments  were  for 
their  school  boys  and  girls,  not  for  wage-earning  boys 
and  girls.  Statistics  from  vocational  bureaus  show  that 
the  schools  have  been  fully  as  successful  in  eliminating 
juniors  from  the  benefits  of  vocational  guidance  and 
placement  as  from  the  classroom.  Obviously,  even  the 
few  school  bureaus  in  operation  could  not  be  expected  to 
function  as  readjustment  and  replacement  bureaus  for 
the  thousands  of  junior  war  workers. 

(5)  Philanthropic  organizations  had  made  many  excellent 
experiments  but  had  established  no  central  organization  for 
pooling  their  experience  and  efforts  and  were  not  available 
as  a  large  factor  in  replacement  and  readjustment. 

(6)  The  Boys'  Working  Reserve  ^  which  was  orga,nized 
to  meet  the  agricultural  emergency  arising  from  the  war, 
had  fulfilled  its  mission,  and  was  to  be  closed  as  soon  as 
possible  with  a  minimum  of  injustice  to  boys  who  had 
anticipated  service  during  the  next  season.  If  the  boys 
16  to  21  years  old  who  had  enrolled  as  agricultural  wage 
earners  were  to  be  dropped  without  positions  after  the 
armistice,  what  was  to  become  of  the  thousands  of  boys  and 
girls  who  had  enrolled  in  other  war-essential  industries? 

With  these  and  other  pertinent  facts  in  mind  the  Jun- 
ior Section  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service  was 
created  by  order  of  the  Director  General,  December  6, 1918, 

•  The  Boys'  Working  Reserve  was  organized  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Hall,  President  of 
Boys'  Club  Federation,  and  made  a  Division  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service.  Mr.  Hall  was  National  Director  from  the  date  of  organization  until  ita 
termination,  October  1,  1919. 


64  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

and  was  charged  with  the  duty  of  caring  for  wage-earning 
boys  and  girls  under  21  years  of  age.  Mr.  J.  B.  Davis  of 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  was  appointed  Chief  in  Charge  of 
Boys'  Work,  and  Mrs.  Anna  Y.  Reed,  of  Seattle,  Wash., 
Assistant  Chief  in  Charge  of  Girls'  Work.  Other  duties 
claimed  Mr.  Davis'  attention  and  he  was  unable  to 
assume  responsibilities  for  national  organization  work. 
He  therefore  tendered  his  resignation  February  10,  1919, 
and  Mrs.  Reed  took  charge  of  the  entire  section,  retaining 
the  title  of  Assistant  Chief  until  the  completion  of  the 
work  of  the  Boys'  Working  Reserve  made  more  definite 
plans  possible.  With  the  closing  of  the  Boys'  Working 
Reserve,  Mr.  Hall  returned  to  private  business  and 
Mrs.  Reed  was  appointed  as  Assistant  to  the  Director 
General  in  Charge  of  the  Junior  Division. 

The  first  federal  department  was  established  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  March,  1919,  in  cooperation  with  the  educa- 
tional system.  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh  followed. 
At  the  date  of  writing  there  are  nominal  departments 
in  eleven  large  cities  but  neither  the  national  nor  the 
local  offices  claim  complete  organization  or  entirely 
satisfactory  work.  Providence,  Pittsburgh,  and  South 
Bend  are  functioning  in  a  most  creditable  manner,  i.e., 
they  are  laying  the  foundation  upon  which  we  all  feel 
that  a  comprehensive,  scientific,  modern  vocational 
guidance  and  placement  department  is  in  process  of 
being  built.  Statistics  from  these  combined  federal- 
educational  offices  indicate  that  a  much  larger  volume 
of  work  is  being  handled  than  was  the  case  when  they 
were  educational  offices  only,  and  that  the  introduction 
of  the  practical  viewpoint  has  increased  rather  than 
decreased  their  educational  value.  Statistics  prove  that 
employers  are  using  the  offices  more  generally  than  are 
the  schools  —  something  which  educators  must  remedy. 


EFFORTS  TO  SOLVE   EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM      65 

They  also  prove  that  educators  have  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity to  advise  and  inform  young  wage  earners  prior  to 
school  leaving,  which  up  to  date  they  have  not  utilized. 

The  main  advantages  in  the  Junior  Division  of  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  lie  in  the  facts  that  it  is 
the  first  practical  national  expression  of  national  interest  in 
the  problems  involved  in  the  emplojonent  of  the  young ; 
that  it  combines  theory  and  practice ;  that  it  is  equipped 
for  scientific  research ;  that  its  plans  include  leadership 
in  the  collection,  analyzation,  interpretation,  and  dis- 
semination of  information ;  that  it  offers  advice  and 
assistance  in  the  organization  of  local  offices ;  that  it 
refuses  to  include  in  its  national  membership  junior 
offices  which  fail  to  institute  and  maintain  definite  place- 
ment standards ;  that  its  personnel  is  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  educational  functions  most  intimately  related 
to  its  own  —  continuation  schools,  compulsory  attend- 
ance, boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  etc. 

The  Junior  Division  has  not  yet  accomplished  very 
much.  It  has  proceeded  very  slowly  and  has  attempted 
to  lay  a  safe  foundation.  It  has  a  very  limited  trained 
personnel,  but  by  means  of  fellowships,  of  which  it  has 
offered  four,  and  by  training  on  the  job,  it  is  attempting 
to  overcome  this  deficiency.  Three  semi-reorganizations 
of  the  United  States  Emploj'^ment  Service  have  taken  place 
during  the  year  of  its  existence,  each,  to  some  extent,  handi- 
capping it  in  continuity  of  policy.  Its  handicaps  have, 
however,  been  more  than  neutralized  by  the  support  and 
encouragement  received  from  the  Secretary  of  Labor 
and  the  Director  General  of  the  Employment  Service 
and  by  their  faith  in  its  ultimate  success.  If  Congress 
decides  to  make  the  Employment  Service  a  permanent 
governmental  institution,  the  future  of  the  Junior  Division 
promises  well. 


66 


JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


A  list  of  cities  cooperating  with  the  Federal-State  Serv- 
ice August  21,  1920,  and  the  agency  through  which 
cooperation  is  effected  is  offered.  Development  is  in  all 
stages  of  progress,  varying  from  the  mere  appointment  of 
a  Superintendent  in  charge  of  organization  to  a  fairly 
complete  organization  conducting  a  training  center. 


Berrien  County,  Michigan 
Boston,  Massachusetts    . 


Cleveland,  Ohio  .  .  . 
Detroit,  Michigan  .  .  . 
Milwaukee,  Wisconsin  . 
Minneapohs,  Minnesota . 


New  York  City .    .     .    .    , 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania 


Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania 
Providence,  Rhode  Island 
Seattle,  Washington   .    . 

South  Bend,  Indiana  .  . 
St.  Paul,  Minnesota  .  . 
Washington,  D.  C.     .    . 


Worcester,  Massachusetts 


County  School  System. 

Public  Schools.  Dropped  July  1,  1920, 
owing  to  the  desire  of  the  Board  of 
Education  to  eliminate  leadership 
through  the  Superintendent  in  Charge 
of  Vocational  Education  and  substi- 
tute cooperation  with  the  Pubhc 
School  Vocational  Bureau  and  Umit 
registration  to  Public  School  pupils. 

Pubhc  Schools. 

Pubhc  Schools. 

Catholic  Community  Service. 

Public  Schools.  Possibly  to  become  a 
training  center. 

Pubhc  Schools. 

Pubhc  Schools  and  White-Wilhams 
I^oundation.  Closed  temporarily 
April  15,  1920,  due  to  lack  of  trained 
personnel  and  imcertain  conditions 
in  the  schools. 

Pubhc  Schools.    A  training  center. 

Public  Schools. 

Young  Women's  Christian  Association 
(girls  only) . 

Public  Schools. 

Public  Schools. 

Independent  Junior  Service.  Dropped 
temporarily  probably  to  be  reestab- 
Ushed  as  a  training  center. 

Pubhc  Schools. 


PART   II 

FUNCTIONS   AND   METHODS  OF   VOCATIONAL 
GUIDANCE  AND  PLACEMENT 


CHAPTER  III 

EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE 

"Vocational  guidance  is  a  bit  of  new  and  popular  phraseology 
which  carries  with  it  a  variety  of  meanings  and  is  open  to  a  variety 
of  interpretations."  . 

No  one  can  definitely  define  the  functions  of  voca- 
tional guidance,  indicate  the  one  best  method  of  procedure, 
or  enumerate  the  exact  results  to  be  attained  by  it. 

"In  the  minds  of  some  it  is  an  indefinite  something  which  is  too 
intangible  to  attempt  to  define,  much  less  to  utQize.  It  is  some- 
thing to  be  avoided.  In  the  minds  of  others  it  is  something  decidedly 
definite  but  means  nothing  more  scientific  than  free  employment. 
Somewhere  between  these  two  extremes  there  is  to  be  found  a  logical, 
purposeful,  vocational  guidance  program,  which  sooner  or  later  will 
be  incorporated  in  our  educational  system."  ^ 

The  Junior  Division  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service  does  not  claim  to  send  out  "  experts  "  in  voca- 
tional guidance  nor  does  it  beheve  that  experience  in  voca- 
tional guidance  has  yet  been  broad  enough  or  scientific 
enough  to  venture  to  advocate  any  "  system  "  of  vocational 
guidance.  Progress  in  vocational  guidance  is  in  its 
infancy.  Its  development  depends  on  elasticity  and 
adaptability,  factors  rarely  found  in  any  "  system." 
Progress  in  vocational  guidance  also  depends  on  progress 
in  psychology  and  sociology,  sciences  which  are  still  in 
their  infancy.  The  Junior  Division  does  believe,  however, 
that  the  time  has  come  for  the  few  workers  who  have  had 
extended  practical  experience  in  vocational  guidance  to 

>  Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Vocational  Guidance  Report,"  1913-16,  Seattle,  Board  of 
Education,  1917,  p.  13. 

69 


70 


JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


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72  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

summarize  the  results  of  that  experience  in  such  a  way 
that  more  recent  recruits  may  avoid  their  errors  and 
profit  by  their  successes. 

Vocational  guidance  comprises  two  distinct  types  of 
functions  —  educational  functions  and  employment  func- 
tions. Although  we  are  free  to  admit  the  impossibility  of 
drawing  any  hard  and  fast  lines  between  these  two  func- 
tions, it  does  seem  to  us  quite  clear  that  the  major  re- 
sponsibility for  educational  functions  should  be  assigned 
to  the  school  system,  while  responsibility  for  placement 
should  be  taken  by  the  employment  system. 

The  educators'  assumption  of  responsibility  for  the 
educational  functions  of  vocational  guidance  implies  the 
use  of  the  entire  school  system  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  consciously  and  systematically  offers  to  each  pupil : 

1.  Guidance  in  analyzing  and  developing  characteristics 
or  qualities  which  make  for  success  in  life  —  occupational 
life  included. 

2.  Guidance  in  selecting  general  education  courses, 
accompanied  by  a  more  conscious  effort  on  the  part  of 
educators  to  see  that  instruction  in  the  "  fundamentals  " 
is  more  closely  related  to  life. 

3.  Systematic  occupational  information,  accompanied 
by  definite  assistance  in  analyzing  general  and  specific 
occupational  demands  in  conjunction  with  general  and 
specific  abilities  of  pupils. 

4.  Guidance  in  selecting  vocational  training  and  con- 
stant guidance  while  pursuing  it. 

5.  Guidance  in  the  type  of  salesmanship  which  is  essen- 
tial in  selling  skill  and  ability,  including  the  type  of 
advertising  which  results  in  satisfactory  or  unsatisfactory 
sales. 

6.  Guidance  in  understanding  what  factors  make  for 
success  after  positions  have  been  secured. 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  73 

This,  or  a  similar  program,  put  into  effect  in  every 
public  educational  system  for  every  pupil  prior  to  elimina- 
tion, or  graduation,  is  fundamental  to  the  success  of  any 
national  system  of  guidance  and  placement.  The  method 
of  "introducing  such  a  program  is  less  easily  determined 
because  so  much  depends  upon  local  conditions.  At 
the  very  outset  there  is  apt  to  be  more  or  less  confusion 
regarding  the  relation  between  educational  guidance  and 
vocational  guidance.  The  term  "  vocational  "  is  com- 
paratively new  whether  applied  to  guidance  or  to  educa- 
tion. Unless  very  discriminating  judgment  be  exercised, 
a  new  agency  entering  any  field  is  inclined  to  encroach 
upon  the  functions  of  older  agencies  and  assume  responsi- 
biUties  which  do  not  legitimately  come  within  its  domain. 
The  subject  of  this  thesis  is  vocational  guidance.  Natu- 
rally the  vocational  phase  of  guidance  is  being  emphasized, 
but  that  does  not  mean  that  it  is  the  most  important 
phase.  In  other  words,  the  method  of  presentation  may 
isuggest  that  vocational  guidance  is  paramount  to  educa- 
tional guidance  and  includes  it  within  its  field.  Such  is 
not  the  case.  "  Educational  "  is  a  legitimate  term  for  the 
entire  field  of  guidance,  while  vocational  guidance,  or 
guidance  specifically  connected  with  occupational  life, 
is  but  one  of  its  phases.  Social  guidance,  moral  guidance, 
physical  guidance,  etc.,  are  other  phases  of  educational 
guidance.  On  the  other  hand,  since  the  one  basic  element 
common  to  all  phases  of  guidance  is  character  develop- 
ment, just  in  so  far  as  vocational  guidance  deals  with 
character  development,  educational  guidance  and  voca- 
tional guidance  may  appear  to  be,  and  in  reality  are, 
synonymous.  The  same  is  true  with  reference  to  general 
education  and  vocational  education.  I  hope  that  this 
point  has  been  clearly  explained  because  I  know  from 
personal  experience  that  many  teachers  have  not  been 


74  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

able  to  visualize  the  place  of  vocational  guidance  in  the 
general  scheme  of  educational  guidance. 

In  a  brief  treatise  of  this  type  it  is  not  possible  to  discuss 
in  detail  vocational  guidance  curricula,  but  a  few  sugges- 
tions will  help  to  interpret  the  points  enumerated  above 
and  may  be  of  value  to  novitiates. 

1.  GUIDANCE  IN  ANALYZING  AND  DEVELOPING  CHAR- 
ACTERISTICS OR  QUALITIES  WHICH  MAKE  FOR  SUCCESS  IN 
LIFE  —  OCCUPATIONAL   LIFE   INCLUDED. 

"  What  can  the  schools  do  to  make  more  efficient 
workers?  "  was  asked  of  many  employers  who  deal  with 
large  numbers  of  young  workers.  Employers'  replies  were 
almost  identical  with  those  of  the  workers  themselves. 
Capital  and  labor,  employer  and  employee,  no  matter 
what  their  point  of  view,  were  unanimous  in  asking  for 
greater  emphasis  along  three  different  lines : 

(1)  Accuracy,  rapidity,  and  neatness  in  arithmetic, 
writing,  and  spelling. 

(2)  Honesty,  industry,  and  ability  to  follow  instructions. 

(3)  Personality  —  hygiene,  proper  business  dress, 
courtesy  and  refinement  in  speech  and  manner.^ 

The  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools, 
Report  of  1917,  summarized  the  opinions  of  employers  on 
junior  qualifications  as  follows : 

"  After  all,  it  appears  to  be  a  fact  that  employers  lay  less  stress 
on  the  educational  qualifications  of  their  employees  than  on  char- 
acter, appearance,  skill,  personahty,  willingness  to  work,  adapta- 
bility, and  other  similar  assets.  From  this  it  would  seem  that  the 
personnel  of  a  teaching  force,  the  tj^e  of  mind,  and  the  character 
of  the  people  with  whom  the  child  is  brought  in  daily  contact  is  of 
even  more  importance  than  the  method  of  instruction  or  even  than 
the  subject  to  be  studied." 

1  Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Seattle  Children  in  School  and  Industry,"  p.  63.  . 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  75 

The  studies  indicated  above  are  not  my  only  original 
sources  of  information.  The  fallowing  is  quoted  from 
the  second  Seattle  pubUcation : 

"Last  year  we  collected  and  classified  the  same  type  of  informa- 
tion from  over  200  of  the  leading  business  houses,  and  from  about 
fifty  of  the  largest  schools  of  the  country.  In  not  one  of  the  200 
business  rephes  did  we  find  any  mention  of  what  we  are  ordinarily 
pleased  to  term  'education.'  A  large  number  mentioned  general 
intelligence,  but  the  only  specific  educational  requirement  was 
'correct  use  of  EngUsh.'  This  appeared  a  number  of  times.  By 
far  the  most  common  type  of  expression  was  '  an  educational  system 
that  will  develop  gumption,  initiative,  independence,  imagination, 
alertness,  and  self-rehance.' 

"We  have  sufficient  evidence  to  standardize  the  opinions  of 
business  houses  as  to  character  essentials.  Their  requirements  are 
also  the  requirements  of  society  in  general.  With  unanimity  in 
demand,  concerted  action  should  be  made  to  meet  the  require- 
ments." ^ 

My  opinion  has  not  changed  since  the  Seattle  study  was 
made  —  concerted  action  should  be  made  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  society  and  of  occupational  life.  But  how? 
Systematic  character  development  should  be  a  regular 
part  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum,  beginning  in 
the  first  grade.  I  offer  a  few  suggestions  which  have 
been  useful  to  me  and  which  may  be  of  assistance  to 
others. 

(1)  Class  discussion  as  to  the  meaning  of  positive  or 
success,  and  negative  or  failure  qualities. 

(2)  Have  pupils  list  as  many  positives  as  possible, 
with  the  corresponding  negatives. 

(3)  Select  8  or  10  positives  which  are  so  universally 
required  for  success  in  any  line  that  they  may  legitimately 
be  termed  "  general." 

(4)  Select  a  few  negatives  universally  undesirable. 

>  Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Vocational  Guidance  Report,"  1913-1916,  p.  85. 


76 


JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


Action 


(5)  Furnish  each  pupil  with  copies  of  3  and  4. 

(6)  Ask  each  pupil  to  check  the  positives  and  negatives 
which  he  possesses. 

(7)  This  furnishes  him  definite  information  as  to  which 
qualities  he  must  develop  and  which  overcome  if  he 
hopes  to  be  a  success  in  life. 

(8)  Grades  indicating  progress  or  failure  should  be 
entered  regularly  by  the  pupil  after  conference  with  the 
teacher. 

The  average  fifth  grade  pupil  will  be  able  to  handle 
character  development  on  this  basis  without  preliminary 

Ability  ^^^^^^5     ^^^^^    ^^^> 

however,  a  number 

of  helpful  devices 
which  may  be  intro- 
Reliability  duced  by  teachers 
who  so  desire.  I 
have  used  with  a 
considerable  degree 
Endurance  of   success   a    little 

device  picked  up  in  a  lecture  on  salesmanship.^  Second 
and  third  grade  pupils  are  not  too  young  to  respond  to  its 
appeal  provided  it  be  presented  in  suitable  form,  and 
upper  grade  pupils  who  have  had  "  areas  "  are  delighted 
with  the  conclusion  of  the  lesson.  Every  pupil  knows 
what  it  means  to  be  called  ''  square  "  or  "  on  the  square." 
If  he  is  to  be  "  square  "  he  must  make  himself  so.  How? 
One  at  a  time  the  lines  may  be  drawn  and  named  with 
full  discussion  as  to  how  a  longer  or  shorter  side  may  be 
developed.  The  full  meaning  of  Ability,  Reliability, 
Endurance,  and  Action  should  be  understood  and  the 
seriousness  of  failure  to  develop  any  one  side  should  be 
emphasized.     Normal  school  supervisors  where  this  has 

1  By  a  representative  of  tke  Sheldon  School. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  77 

been  used  for  demonstration  lessons  have  reported  that 
the  "  square  "  was  worth  its  weight  in  gold. 

Benjamin  Franklin's  method  of  estimating  his  char- 
acter assets  is  given  in  full  in  his  autobiography  and  makes 
a  different  form  of  appeal  to  a  different  type  of  pupil. 

"I  made  a  little  book  in  which  I  allotted  a  page  for  each  of  the 
virtues.  I  ruled  each  page  with  red  ink,  so  as  to  have  seven  columns, 
one  for  each  day  of  the  week,  marking  each  column  with  a  letter  for 
the  day.  I  crossed  these  columns  with  thirteen  red  lines,  marking 
the  beginnings  of  each  line  with  a  first  letter  of  one  of  the  virtues, 
on  which  line  and  in  its  proper  column  T  might  mark  by  a  little 
black  spot  every  fault  I  found  upon  examination  to  have  been  com- 
mitted respecting  that  virtue  upon  that  day." 

Ralph  Parlette's  "  Story  of  the  nuts  and  beans  "  or 
"  Are  you  shaking  up  or  rattling  down?  "  cannot  fail  to 
have  a  message  for  every  pupil  from  the  primary  room  to 
the  university.^ 

The  old  Japanese  story  in  which  each  finger  is  assigned 
a  character  quality  which  if  not  developed  will  spoil  the 
hand  and  transform  it  into  a  club,  has  been  very  useful 
to  me  in  the  kindergarten  and  primary  grades.  If  the 
primary  grades  are  to  study  and  grade  themselves  on 
character  development  it  would  seem  wise  to  concentrate 
on  one  fundamental  quality  —  neatness,  promptness,  or 
some  simple  essential,  and  not  attempt  to  take  up  a  second 
until  the  meaning  and  importance  of  the  first  is  fully 
mastered. 

As  has  been  indicated  under  "  The  Magnitude  of  the 
Problem,"  this  type  of  vocational  guidance  which  is 
essentially  educational  guidance  may  be  offered  to  all 
school  children ;  to  those  from  14  to  20  or  to  any  group 

'  Parlette,  Ralph,  "  It's  Up  to  You !  Are  You  Shaking  Up  or  Rattling  Down  7  " 
Published  by  Parlette-Padget  Co.,  122  So.  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago,  111.,  35(i. 


78  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

desired.  We  may  broaden  or  narrow  the  field  as  we 
please  so  long  as  we  fit  the  content  and  method  to  the  type 
of  pupil  whom  we  include.  We  can  hardly  claim  to  have 
done  our  full  duty  to  the  children  of  this  country  if  we  do 
not  ofifer  each  pupil,  at  some  time  previous  to  school- 
leaving,  an  opportunity  to  master  this  simple  form  of 
self-analysis  so  that  he  can  readily  estimate  his  own 
assets  and  liabilities  as  well  as  determine  the  validity  of 
suggestions  and  criticisms  which  may  be  made  by  co- 
workers and  superiors.^ 

2.  GUIDANCE  IN  SELECTING  GENERAL  EDUCATIONAL 
COURSES  ACCOMPANIED  BY  A  MORE  CONSCIOUS  EFFORT 
ON  THE  PART  OF  EDUCATORS  TO  SEE  THAT  INSTRUCTION 
IN  THE  "fundamentals"  IS  MORE  CLOSELY  RELATED  TO 
LIFE. 

This  subject  was  discussed  in  some  detail  in  the  Seattle 
Report  1913-1916.  Since  that  date  much  valuable  infor- 
mation has  been  collected.  One  illustration  will  suffice. 
It  can  be  duplicated  by  almost  any  school  system  in  the 
country.  I  was  visiting  an  eighth  grade  recitation  in 
arithmetic.  The  lesson  assignment  was  parcel  post. 
Parcel  post  was  rarely  utilized  by  either  teacher  or  pupil, 
the  zone  system  had  no  connection  with  any  life  which 
interested  either,  no  one  in  the  room  had  ever  visited  a 
real  parcel  post  department,  and  no  one  had  any  interest 
in  the  recitation.  Upon  invitation,  I  took  charge  of  the 
class.  Within  five  minutes  every  pupil  was  keenly  inter- 
ested in  the  parcel  post.     Why?    Because  within  a  few 

'  It  is  now  very  generally  recognized  that  the  schools  have  not  done  their  duty 
in  character  development ;  that  they  have  said  too  little  about  the  qualities  in 
demand  by  the  workaday  world ;  that  they  have  done  almost  nothing  to  evaluate 
the  role  played  by  tact,  initiative,  personality,  etc.,  and  that  they  have  neither 
realized  nor  taught  that  different  occupations  require  different  abilities. 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  79 

months  I  had  seen  several  boys  and  girls  just  the  age  of 
these  pupils  lose  positions  in  parcel  post  service  because 
they  could  not  classify  packages  accurately  within  the 
various  zones.  Wage  earning  is  a  vitally  interesting 
topic  to  boys  and  girls  of  this  age ;  stories  of  other  boys 
and  girls,  especially  if  they  ring  true,  are  also  vitally 
interesting.  Long  before  the  close  of  the  period  the  class 
was  busily  engaged  in  estimating  how  rapidly  it  would  be 
necessary  to  figure  zone  rates  in  order  to  retain  a  position. 
I  gave  them  the  business  requirements  for  speed  and 
accuracy,  and  explained  why  place  geography  must  be 
"  on  the  end  of  their  tongues."  Finally,  I  called  off  the 
names  of  cities  while  the  pupils  engaged  in  a  brisk  contest 
to  see  which  could  send  out  imaginary  packages  with  the 
greatest  rapidity  and  accuracy.  Failure  in  arithmetic 
had  been  turned  into  success  in  both  arithmetic  and 
geography,  to  say  nothing  of  the  opportunity  for  connecting 
classroom  problems  with  business  requirements.  Why? 
Not  because  I  was  a  better  teacher  than  the  regular 
instructor, but  because  my  "parcel  post  "  connected  with 
life  and  hers  did  not ;  because  her  material  was  dead 
whereas  mine  was  very  much  alive.  Approximately 
50  per  cent  of  our  pupils  lose  their  first  position  because 
they  fail  in  something  which  is  supposed  to  be  included 
in  the  school  curriculum.  Is  it  not  time  for  instructors 
who  are  handling  general  education  to  ascertain  just  what 
such  failures  are  and  to  make  a  more  conscious  effort  to 
connect  the  fundamentals  of  education  with  the  require- 
ments of  everyday  business  life  ?  ^ 

'  A  recent  effort  to  aid  teachers  in  offering  more  practical  classroom  assignments 
is  "Modern  Junior  Mathematics"  in  2  vols.,  by  Marie  Gugle,  published  by  the 
Gregg  Pub.  Co.,  New  York  City,  1920. 

McAndrew,  William,  "The  Public  and  Its  School."  Yonkera,  N.  Y.,  World  Book 
Co.,  1916,  should  be  read  by  every  teacher. 


80  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

3.  SYSTEMATIC  OCCUPATIONAL  INFORMATION  ACCOM- 
PANIED BY  DEFINITE  ASSISTANCE  IN  ANALYZING  GENERAL 
AND  SPECIFIC  OCCUPATIONAL  DEMANDS  IN  CONJUNCTION 
WITH  GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC  ABILITIES  OF  PUPILS. 

It  would  seem  that  the  time  has  come  when  a  systematic 
course  in  occupational  information  should  be  offered 
every  pupil  prior  to  leaving  school.  No  definite  grade 
can  be  designated  as  the  best  grade  for  such  a  subject — 
the  best  grade  is  the  grade  in  which  it  will  reach  all  the 
pupils,  therefore  it  is  quite  obvious  that  it  will  not  always 
be  the  same  grade.  In  some  systems,  or  in  some  schools 
within  some  systems,  it  should  be  introduced  as  low  as 
the  fifth  grade ;  in  other  systems  the  seventh  or  eighth 
grade  would  be  sufficiently  early.  In  no  system  should  it 
be  deferred  until  the  high  school  or  the  ninth  grade.^ 
Naturally  the  content,  material,  and  method  should  be 
adapted  to  the  age,  educational  status,  and  employment 
prospects  of  the  pupils.  It  is  obvious  also  that  instruction 
of  this  type  should  be  given  by  specially  trained  teachers 
and  not  by  the  regular  classroom  teacher.  This  does 
not  imply  that  the  regular  teacher  is  exempt  from  all 
responsibility  for  vocational  information.  Every  teacher, 
as  indicated  in  the  parcel  post  assignment,  should  be  able 
to  connect  her  daily  recitations  with  the  facts  of  life,  but 
she  could  hardly  be  expected  to  be  a  specialist  in  occupa- 
tions. Occupations  selected  for  study  should  vary  from 
city  to  city,  depending  upon  local  conditions  and  the  type 

1  Boys  and  girls  who  are  eliminated  before  or  at  the  close  of  the  grammar  school 
period  are  in  greater  need  of  vocational  assistance  than  are  high  school  pupils. 
If  definite  information  be  deferred  to  the  high  school  period,  they  lose  it  entirely. 
If  vocational  information  be  offered  in  the  grammar  school,  both  the  pupil  who 
goes  on  and  the  one  who  drops  out  secure  the  benefit.  The  pupil  who  goes  to  high 
school  should  have  acquired  basic  information  and  should  have  established  habits 
of  thought  which  will  assist  him  to  guide  himself,  reinforced  as  he  will  be  by  the 
better  mental  background. 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  81 

of  pupil  forming  the  group.  In  the  high  school  group 
local  conditions  would  be  of  less  importance  than  abilities, 
ambitions,  and  advanced  opportunities  for  study.  Legis- 
lation enacted  for  the  benefit  of  wage  earners  —  by 
municipahty,  state,  or  nation  —  should  form  a  part  of 
the  vocational  curriculum.  So  also  should  business 
standards  and  responsibilities.  The  last  topic  is  especially 
necessary  for  girls,  who  are  finding  their  way  into  the 
higher  lines  of  business  with  much  more  difiiculty  than 
are  boys.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  be  told  that  "men  are 
standing  in  the  way  of  women's  progress  in  occupational 
life,"  and  the  statement  is  too  generally  accepted  as  a 
fact  by  our  young  women  workers.  Careful  observation 
of  facts,  reinforced  by  my  own  experience,  leads  me  to 
feel  that  women  are  standing  in  their  own  way,  whereas 
the  average  man  is  very  ready  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to 
any  earnest,  conscientious  business  woman  who  has  a 
definite  objective  and  some  conception  of  the  road  to  be 
traveled  in  reaching  it.  Women  are  entering  industry  in 
increasing  numbers.  The  educator  who  handles  occupa- 
tional courses  for  girls  has  a  heavy  responsibility  and 
an  excellent  opportunity  for  service.^ 

A  thorough  student  of  occupational  life  will  evolve  her 
own  methods  for  classroom  use.  For  the  small  school 
in  which  one  person  must  handle  many  subjects,  a 
tentative  program  is  suggested  whict  may  be  used  in 
lieu  of  something  better : 

(1)  Select  4,  6,  8,  or  any  number  of  occupations  common 
to  the  locality  or  of  such  general  interest  that  they  may 
serve  as  model  studies.     Where  time  is  limited  it  is  well 

•  Placement  agencies  realize  and  college  faculties  are  coming  to  realize  that  the 
educated,  unskilled  woman  is  very  difficult  to  place.  Young  college  men  under- 
stand that  general  education  without  skill  has  not  a  high  initial  market  value,  but 
young  college  women  are  apt  to  place  a  value  on  their  services  which  is  altogether 
out  of  proportion  to  their  commercial  value. 
Q 


82  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

to  select  occupations  upon  which  considerable  printed 
material  of  recognized  value  is  available.* 

(2)  Master  the  printed  material  and  outline  facts  and 
processes  which  are  essential  for  pupils.  Visit  one  or 
more  local  industries,  comparing  observable  facts  with 
general  information  from  printed  material.  Great  care 
should  be  used  in  questioning  business  houses  on  things 
which  they  are  likely  to  regard  as  "  none  of  your  business," 
and  even  greater  judgment  should  be  exercised  in  express- 
ing personal  opinions  on  individual  houses  or  in  making 
comparisons  between  competing  houses.  Teachers  are 
peculiarly  prone  to  study  occupations  from  the  point  of 
view  of  their  own  ideal  for  the  prospective  wage  earner, 
rather  than  from  the  point  of  view  of  business,  and  hence 
are  regarded  as  impractical  and  untrustworthy. 

(3)  Select  the  points  which  are  important  for  class  use 
and  prepare  a  definite  plan  for  presentation.  I  have 
frequently  utilized  the  following  list  of  points  in  junior 
high  school  demonstrations  where  pupils  had  had  no 
preliminary  vocational  preparations.  It  must  not  be 
assumed  that  any  such  tentative  outline  is  all-inclusive, 
but  that  it  suggests  a  method  of  approach  which  may  be 
varied  to  suit  varying  conditions.  Gradually,  as  job 
specifications  and  man  specifications  become  more  gen- 
eral and  more  scientific,  we  shall  eliminate  this  and  other 
similarly  crude  substitutes. 

•  A  certain  type  of  occupational  study  well  made  for  one  city  can  very  easily 
be  utilized  by  any  other  city.  There  has  been  far  too  much  time  and  energy  wasted 
on  surveys  which  contain  no  new  material  and  offer  no  new  suggestions.  There  is 
another  type  of  survey  which  is  far  too  common  and  which  brings  great  discredit 
on  our  public  school  systems  —  I  refer  to  surveys  made  by  groups  of  volunteers 
who  have  no  background  of  industrial  information  and  whose  final  conclusions  are 
a  mere  summary  of  conversations  held  with  employers  and  employees.  The  "Girl 
and  the  Job,"  recently  published,  is  an  excellent  example  of  occupational  information 
which  is  based  on  such  survey  methods. 

Hoerle,  Helen  C,  and  Saltzberg,  Florence  B.,  "The  Girl  and  the  Job,"  New 
York,  Henry  Holt,  1919. 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  83 

Outline  for  Testing  Occupations 

(1)  Constant  or  variable. 

(2)  Seasonal  or  regular. 

(3)  Temporary  or  permanent. 

(4)  Skilled,  semi-skilled,  unskilled. 

(5)  Supply  and  demand. 

(6)  General  and  specific  demands  (both  character  and 
education) . 

(7)  Union  or  open  shop. 

(8)  Method  of  remuneration  —  piece,  time,  bonus, 
profit-sharing,  etc. 

(9)  Time  and  expense  for  preparation. 

(10)  Hours,  long,  split,  evening,  night,  Sunday. 

(11)  Character  of  co-workers. 

(12)  Physical  advantages  and  disadvantages  (work- 
men's compensation,  industrial  disease,  etc.). 

(13)  Moral  influence. 

(14)  Social  standing. 

(15)  Laws  controlling. 

(16)  Opportunity  and  demands  for  advanced  study. 

(17)  Opportunity  for  financial  promotion  and  system 
of  promotion  —  within  or  without  the  institution. 

(18)  Insurance,  sick  benefits,  pensions,  etc. 

(19)  Employment  methods  —  or  how  services  are 
secured. 

4.  GUIDANCE  IN  SELECTING  VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  AND 
CONSTANT  GUIDANCE  WHILE  PURSUING  IT. 

A  general  vocational  course  similar  to  that  outlined 
under  3  should  be  a  sufficient  basis  either  for  choice  of 
courses  in  vocational  training  or  for  choice  of  occupa- 
tion without  specific  training.  It  should  have  indicated 
with  some  degree  of  accuracy  why  certain  pupils  fit  the 


84  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

demands  of  some  occupations  better  than  of  others, 
and  why  some  occupations  offer  more  advantage  to  one 
pupil  than  to  others.  Guidance  in  the  selection  of  voca- 
tional courses  should  comprise  the  combined  knowledge 
of  class  teachers,  vocational  teachers,  and  the  instructors 
in  the  vocational  lines  under  consideration.  All  the 
information  at  the  command  of  each,  both  on  the  in- 
dividual and  the  occupation,  should  be  at  the  service  of 
the  pupil  when  he  makes  his  choice.  Nor  is  it  sufficient 
that  such  assistance  should  be  pooled  in  the  interests  of 
his  first  choice  —  vocational  guidance  should  be  his  con- 
stant companion  throughout  his  entire  preparatory  course, 
it  should  assist  him  at  every  turn  to  test  the  wisdom  of  his 
choice  and  if  for  any  reason  he  should  question  the  judg- 
ment of  pursuing  his  first  choice,  it  should  be  at  hand  to 
assist  him  in  making  a  new  selection. 

5.  GUIDANCE  IN  THE  TYPE  OF  SAX,ESMANSHIP  WHICH  IS 
ESSENTIAL  IN  SELLING  SKILL  AND  ABILITY,  INCLUDING 
THE  TYPE  OF  ADVERTISING  WHICH  RESULTS  IN  SATIS- 
FACTORY   OR    UNSATISFACTORY    SALES. 

Salesmanship  should  be  included  among  the  funda- 
mentals of  the  elementary  school  curriculum.  Every 
pupil,  irrespective  of  age,  grade,  ability,  or  final  occupation 
enters  the  business  world  in  the  capacity  of  a  salesman. 
Unfortunately,  his  first  sale  is  too  often  his  most  important 
sale  —  the  sale  of  his  own  ability.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  our  public  school  system  permits  him  to  make  this 
sale  with  no  preparation  whatever,  without  even  realizing 
that  he  is  making  a  sale  and  that  successful  advertising 
is  prerequisite  to  successful  selling.  He  does  not  realize 
that  his  prospective  employer  must  be  dealt  with  as  a 
prospect,  that  his  favorable  attention  must  be  attracted 
and  his  interest  won  before  he  will  desire  to  employ  any 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  85 

applicant.  He  has  never  been  told  that  there  are  many 
types  of  prospects,  many  methods  of  approach  and  many 
apparently  unimportant  factors  which  tend  to  acceptance 
or  rejection.  He  does  not  know  the  market  value  of  his 
talent  and  he  has,  at  best,  a  very  vague  idea  as  to  how 
its  sales  value  is  influenced  by  the  relation  between  supply 
and  demand.  If  he  is  rejected  and  a  mate  employed  he 
does  not  know  enough  to  ask,  "  Why  have  I  failed  to  sell 
my  service  where  another  has  succeeded?  Is  it  because  I 
offer  an  inferior  article?  Is  it  because  I  do  not  under- 
stand my  goods  and  did  not  advertise  to  the  best  advan- 
tage? Is  it  because  I  did  not  understand  my  prospect 
and  made  the  wrong  approach?  If  my  article  is  inferior 
in  the  estimation  of  others,  what  makes  it  so?  "  Before  a 
second  application  is  made  the  above  questions  should  be 
asked  and  answered,  and  whatever  of  educational  value 
can  be  derived  from  the  failure  should  be  secured.  For  a 
number  of  years  I  have  been  giving  careful  attention  to 
the  reason  for  refusal  df  junior  applicants  who  are  referred 
to  positions  for  which  placement  officers  have  every  reason 
to  assume  that  they  are  qualified.  General  conclusions 
are  that  refusal  to  employ  is  not  due  to  lack  of  technical 
qualifications  so  much  as  to  lack  of  personaHty  and  to  the 
wrong  method  of  approach. 

Personality  is  a  difficult  subject  to  discuss  and  a  very 
vital  factor  for  success  in  the  business  world.  Some- 
times it  is  lack  of  personality,  sometimes  too  much  per- 
sonality, sometimes  a  personality  which  appeals  to  one 
man  will  antagonize  another,  and  still  there  is  quite  gen- 
eral agreement  that  personality  is  nine  tenths  in  securing 
junior  positions  of  the  educative  type.^  What  then  is 
personality  and  how  can  the  right  personality  be  de- 

*  This  would  not  apply  to  Juvenile  occupations  or  to  occupations  requiring  only 
physical  strength. 


86  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

veloped?     I   quote  from  a  previous   discussion  of  this 
subject : 

"What  is  personality?  It  is  certainly  more  than  mere  outward 
appearance.  Possibly  we  might  say  that  it  is  character  and  ability 
revealed  in  outward  appearance.  Whatever  it  is,  it  is  worth  culti- 
vating and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  assets  a  pupil  has  in  seeking 
vocational  opportunities.  Over  and  over  I  have  been  told  by  em- 
ployers that  personality  controls  nine  tenths  of  the  decisions  in 
selection.  Specific  criticisms  as  to  dress,  maimer,  and  methods  of 
presenting  qualifications  are  easy  to  obtain. 

"If  only  we  could  realize  that  the  moment  our  pupils  enter  the 
door  they  begin  to  express  their  personality.  How  do  they  enter? 
Are  they  neatly  dressed?  Are  they  ladylike  in  manner  and  con- 
versation? Do  they  lay  a  wet  umbrella  on  our  office  table?  Do 
they  put  their  feet  on  our  table  ? 

"I  have  often  tried  to  explain  to  pupils  that  every  salesman 
must  advertise  his  goods  before  he  can  sell  them.  The  most  im- 
portant sale  they  will  ever  have  to  make  is  the  sale  of  their  own 
ability.  How  are  they  going  to  advertise  it?  Gum  chewing  may 
make  a  child  very  happy,  but  ability  advertised  by  gum  chewing 
is  not  ability  advertised  to  the  best  advantage. 

"Last  week  a  mother  called  with  her  daughter  to  consult  regard- 
ing employment.  She  explained  to  me,  in  the  presence  of  the  girl, 
that  the  child  was  now  15  years  old  and  must  earn  her  own  living 
in  some  way ;  she  was  undersized,  which  of  course  would  not  appeal 
to  employers,  and  she  was  very  slow  mentally  or  she  would  have 
been  through  the  grades  long  ago.  I  watched  the  child  as  the 
mother  enumerated  her  poor  qualities.  She  concluded  with  the 
remark  that  the  teachers  had  done  nothing  to  make  the  child  worth 
more  financially.  Both  mother  and  child  were  chewing  gum,  both 
had  unclean  teeth,  the  little  girl  was  very  unbecomingly  dressed, 
and  her  hair  completely  covered  both  forehead  and  ears.  As  I 
drew  the  child  out  in  conversation  she  became  quite  attractive  and 
I  wondered  whether  she  lacked  desirable  personahty  or  whether 
personality  was  advertised  to  the  worst  possible  advantage.  We 
have  to  learn  to  advertise  our  personality,  as  well  as  to  acquire  it. 
In  this  particular  instance  the  mother  seemed  to  be  the  worst 
offender,  and  I  told  her  that  I  should  feel  discouraged  neither  by 
age  nor  size,  but  that  there  were  a  few  things  which  would  be  de- 
cidedly disadvantageous  in  the  eyes  of  the  employer.     They  were 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  87 

not  things  for  which  either  Providence  or  the  teacher  were  re- 
sponsible, but  things  which  came  within  the  province  of  the  home. 
I  then  mentioned  gum  chewing,  unclean  teeth,  the  child's  dress  and 
hair. 

"Awkward  and  clumsy  boys,  over-confident  boys,  timid  and  self- 
conscious  girls,  over-dressed  and  under-educated  girls,  each  type 
must  be  studied  at  close  range.  The  problem  cannot  be  solved  all 
at  once.  Sometimes  a  pupil  comes  to  the  office  several  times  before 
I  make  a  suggestion,  and  sometimes  I  make  it  during  the  first  call. 
This  phase  of  vocational  guidance  is  closely  related  to  character 
study  and  requires  the  same  type  of  methods  —  those  which  can 
neither  be  explained  nor  taught."  ^ 

Some  teachers  have  thought  that  there  was  a  tend- 
ency on  my  part  to  overemphasize  the  importance  lof 
personal  appearance.  I  have  been  a  teacher  myself  and 
can  readily  understand  their  viewpoint.  A  year  or  more 
of  intimate  association  with  any  individual  tends  to 
emphasize  his  most  desirable  characteristics.  A  pupil 
may  be  very  deficient  in  personality  and  still  possess  many 
desirable  characteristics.  The  teacher  gradually  forgets 
her  first  impression  and  even  comes  to  forget  that  there 
is  any  such  thing  as  a  first  impression ;  in  other  words, 
she  expects  prospective  employers  to  see  her  pupils 
through  her  eyes,  rather  than  through  the  eyes  of  a 
stranger  whose  future  interest  in  the  individual  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  the  manner  in  which  less  obvious 
qualities  are  advertised.  The  abstract  interest  of  an 
employer  in  securing  an  employee  is  not  apt  to  ripen  into 
concrete  desire  for  a  specific  applicant  unless  there  be 
some  surface  indication  that  possession  will  be  advan- 
tageous. 

Teachers  can  do  less  to  assist  pupils  in  "  method  of 
approach  "  than  in  personality.  The  final  suggestions  for 
approaching  each  employer  must  come  from  the  place- 

>  Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Vocational  Guidance  Report,"  1913-1916,  pp.  88-89. 


88  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

ment  worker,  who  deals  with  employers  frequently  enough 
to  have  observed  and  analyzed  then*  peculiarities,  and 
who  is  familiar  with  house  rules  regarding  hours  for  and 
methods  of  application.  At  one  time  I  tried  an  interest- 
ing experiment  on  methods  of  approach.  Junior  appli- 
cants were  numbered  consecutively.  Odd  numbers  were 
referred  to  positions  after  careful  instruction  on  method 
of  approach,  both  general  method  and  with  specific  refer- 
ence to  the  position  sought.  Even  numbers  were  per- 
mitted to  use  their  own  judgment.  After  200  applicants 
had  been  referred  and  reported  on  the  results  were  com- 
pared. Ninety  per  cent  of  the  odd  numbers  had  been 
accepted  and  sixty  per  cent  of  the  even.  I  then  called 
upon  the  business  houses  involved.  The  names,  faces, 
qualifications  and  manner  of  approach  of  the  odd  numbers 
were  fairly  well  remembered  by  the  employment  managers 
and  in  a  number  of  cases  my  attention  was  called  to  the 
intelligent  or  dignified  or  clever  manner  in  which  these 
various  applicants  had  presented  their  claims.  A  few  of 
the  even  numbers,  who  were  obviously  superior  persons, 
had  made  a  lasting  impression,  but  the  interest  of 
employers  in  one  group  was  very  different  from  that  in 
the  other.  Appreciation  of  the  service  rendered  by  our 
office  was  very  marked  in  one  case  and  not  noticeable  in 
the  other.  Certain  fundamentals  of  psychology  are  com- 
mon to  all  methods  of  approach,  and  ability  to  size  up 
others  quickly  is  a  valuable  asset  at  all  times.  The 
longer  pupils  are  in  school  the  greater  the  opportunity  to 
serve  them  in  the  solution  of  such  problems.  The 
immature  mind  of  the  average  boy  or  girl  14  years  of 
age  can  grasp  very  httle  in  comparison  with  the  high 
school  student. 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  89 

6.  GUIDANCE  IN  UNDERSTANDING  WHAT  FACTORS  MAKE 
FOR  SUCCESS  AFTER  POSITIONS  HAVE  BEEN  SECURED 

If  it  is  important  for  pupils  to  realize  that  personal 
appearance  is  frequently  nine  tenths  in  securing  a  posi- 
tion, it  is  equally  important  for  them  to  understand  that 
appearance  will  not  count  nine  tenths  in  retaining  a  position; 
that  it  may  deceive  for  them  at  the  start,  but  that  it  will 
not  continue  to  do  so.  When  it  comes  to  winning  the 
approval  and  retaining  the  confidence  of  employers, 
nothing  takes  the  place  of  industry,  loyalty,  honest 
determination  to  succeed  and  being  eternally  on  the  job. 
The  point  is  —  positions  must  be  secured  before  they  can 
be  retained.  PersonaHty  is  a  most  important  factor  in 
obtaining  a  position,  although  not  as  important  as  some 
others  in  retaining  it. 

Any  wide-awake  employment  oflSce  can  give  specific 
instances  in  which  common  causes  of  success  or  failure 
have  come  to  its  attention.  Time-serving  rather  than 
whole-hearted  interest  sums  up  many  elements  of  failure. 
Fear  of  doing  too  much  for  the  salary,  frequent  and  inter- 
minable visits  to  dressing  rooms  after  the  work  day  has 
commenced,  are  very  common  faults  among  women. ^ 
Anticipating  an  employer's  needs,  studjang  and  adapting 
to  his  peculiarities,  assuming  his  minor  responsibilities 
and  saving  his  time  in  every  possible  way,  are  important 
factors  for  success. 

Unfortunately,  one  occasionally  finds  an  employer 
whom  no  self-respecting  person  would  care  to  continue  to 
serve.     Teachers  who   do   placement   work  are  inclined 

'  The  National  Cash  Register  Company  has  prepared  a  series  of  motion  pictures 
in  which  actual  shop  scenes  indicate  various  ways  in  which  time  is  wasted  in  the 
factorj'.  One  of  these  shows  a  young  woman  powdering  her  face  fifteen  minutes 
after  she  is  supposed  to  be  at  work,  — title,  "That  One  Long  Last  Retouch  That 
Costs  So  Many  Thousands  a  Year."  A  second  picture  entitled  "Again?"  or 
"Still?"  shows  the  same  or  other  girls  powdering  their  noses  a  half  hour  later. 


90  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

to  blacklist  such  employers  and  defend  their  methods 
as  the  only  way  to  protect  their  pupils.  I  have  always 
felt  that  this  is  both  an  unwise  and  an  ineffective  method 
of  protection.  Unwise,  because  sooner  or  later  libel  suits 
may  follow  and  involve,  not  the  indiscreet  individual 
concerned,  but  the  public  school  system  whose  represent- 
ative she  is.  Ineffective,  because  no  one  can  possibly 
guarantee  that  all  have  been  blacklisted  who  should  be. 
I  know  of  but  one  absolutely  effective  and  efficient  method 
of  protection,  and  that  is  to  teach  our  boys  and  girls  at 
all  times  and  under  all  circumstances  to  respect  themselves 
and  the  respect  of  others  will  be  sure  to  follow.  This  is 
not  only  a  legitimate  function  of  education  but  should 
be  one  of  its  first  requirements. 


CHAPTER  IV 
FUNCTIONS  AND   METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS 

A  VOCATIONAL  guidance  program  has  been  suggested  for 
public  school  pupils.  It  has  been  indicated  that  much 
of  the  content  of  this  program  was  educational  in  char- 
acter and  social  and  economic  in  purpose,  in  other  words, 
that  vocational  guidance  is  an  educational  device  for 
conducting  an  economic  movement.  It  has  also  been 
indicated  that  this  program  should  be  offered  in  the  grade 
or  grades  where  it  would  be  most  certain  to  benefit  all 
school  attendants. 

At  the  close  of  the  period  during  which  these  general 
information  courses  are  given,  pupils  tend  to  separate 
into  two  groups ;  one  will  pursue  general  high  school  or 
vocational  courses,  the  other  will  enter  wage-earning 
occupations,  and  in  some  states  will  attend  continuation 
school.  The  needs  of  the  former  remain  primarily  educa- 
tional —  guidance  in  selecting  courses  and  educational 
supervision.  The  needs  of  the  latter  become  primarily 
vocational  —  guidance  in  selecting  wage-earning  positions 
and  employment  supervision.  Guidance  in  selecting 
wage-earning  positions  and  employment  supervision  is 
just  as  much  a  public  function  and  a  public  responsibility 
as  is  guidance  in  selecting  school  courses  and  educational 
supervision.  Numerically  the  group  involved  in  the 
former  is  more  important  than  is  the  group  involved  in 
the  latter  —  6,557,472  belong  to  the  wage-earning  group 
and  5,094,678  to  the  educational  group.  We  may  call 
this  public  function  by  any  name  we  wish  —  placement, 

91 


92  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

occupational  service,  or  public  employment.  Terminology- 
does  not  matter  so  long  as  we  realize  in  practice  that  boys 
and  girls  from  14  to  20  years  of  age  who  cannot,  or  who 
do  not,  avail  themselves  of  public  assistance  within  the 
school  are  entitled  to  equally  desirable  public  assistance 
without,  and  that  the  welfare  of  society  demands  that  they 
have  it,  if  we  are  to  check  the  increase  in  economic  illiter- 
ates and  industrial  hoboes. 

1,     CHARACTER   OF   PUBLIC    EMPLOYMENT   OFFICES 

An  employment  agency  is  a  sales  agency  dealing  with 
two  groups  of  people :  (1)  employers  who  desire  to  secure 
services,  and  (2)  employees  who  desire  to  secure  positions. 
Private  employment  agencies  may  encourage  the  use  of 
methods  which  discourage  registration  of  applicants  who 
fall  belQW  the  minimum  standards  of  efficiency  and  con- 
centrate their  efforts  on  attracting  promising  material. 
Their  motive  is  commercial  and  their  methods  adapted 
to  financial  gain.  The  public  agency  must  furnish  place- 
ment facilities  for  every  applicant  who  wants  to  work, 
irrespective  of  the  degree  of  his  efficiency.  It  must  not 
only  attract  promising  material  but  must  attract,  learn 
how  to  hold  and  educate  the  undesirable  until  he 
becomes  desirable.  No  agency  can  make  the  labor 
market,  but  an  efficient  sales  agency  can  often  create 
a  market  for  desirable  applicants  —  private  agencies 
should  not  be  permitted  to  outclass  the  public  agencies 
in  this  respect.  No  agency  can  justify  the  placement  of 
known  unemployables,  nor  should  it  attempt  to  force 
employers  to  accept  workers  below  the  efficiency  line. 
This  has  been  one  of  the  most  serious  and  most  justifiable 
criticisms  on  public  placement  bureaus  operated  by 
charitable  organizations  —  the  need  of  the  individual, 
not  the  value  of  the  service,  has  been  the  basis  of  place- 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OP  PLACEMENTS     93 

ment.  There  are  also  certain  placement  restrictions 
imposed  by  legislation,  tradition,  labor  unions,  etc.  All 
are  important  because  they  indicate  the  limitations  within 
which  a  public  employment  agency  can  he  a  monopoly  and  in 
order  to  he  a  success  it  must  he  a  monopoly  —  it  must  pool 
the  entire  labor  supply  and  demand,  and  its  methods  of 
distribution  must  be  characterized  by  the  most  economical 
assignment  of  both  workers  and  positions. 

Sometimes,  as  has  been  intimated  above,  a  public  em- 
ployment office  must  function  as  a  salvage  department. 
This  is  especially  true  with  reference  to  juniors  16  to  20 
years  of  age  who  seek  the  assistance  of  placement  offices. 
I  quote  from  personal  experience  : 

"A  tliird  type  is  represented  by  the  youth  who,  eliminated  from 
school  in  his  younger  years,  is  now  eUminated  also  from  industry. 
Embittered  by  his  failure  in  school,  and  sobered  bj"^  his  experience 
in  industry,  he  turns  to  the  vocational  department  as  the  last  hope, 
or  is  forced  to  turn  to  it  by  some  employer  who  refuses  to  consider 
his  apphcation  without  a  central  office  recommendation.  More 
parents  have  come  to  us  asking  advice  for  this  ehminated-from- 
school,  eliminated-from-industry  type  than  for  all  other  types 
together.  Many  of  these  boys  and  girls  have  had  Uttle  to  offer 
when  they  left  school  and  have  steadily  degenerated  in  manners 
and  morals  since  leaving.  The  attitude  of  the  individual  suggests 
the  method.  Some  are  required  to  report  to  us  regularly  after 
working  hours  for  discussion  and  advice;  the  office  is  kept  open 
in  the  evening  for  that  purpose.  Others  are  more  in  need  of  sympa- 
thetic interest  than  anything  else  and  to  assure  them  of  our  con- 
tinued assistance  will  bring  them  back  frequently  of  their  own 
volition.  Whatever  method  is  employed,  these  are  the  most  trying 
cases  that  come  into  the  office.  No  sincere  vocational  director  can 
fail  to  reahze  that  po.ssibly  each  individual  api)licant  is  offering 
society,  through  his  instrumentality,  its  last  chance  for  educational 
guidance.  The  burden  of  responsibility  for  this  type  of  callers  is 
very  great.  I  think  I  may  safely  say  that  no  boy  or  girl  within 
this  category  ever  leaves  the  office  without  my  pausing  to  ask : 
Have  I  done  my  best  to  help  him  find  the  way  out  ? 


94  JUNIOR  WAGE   EARNERS 

"In  many  instances  casual  remarks  indicate  how  our  schools 
have  helped  or  hindered  these  boys  on  life's  journey.  We  need 
this  kind  of  reaction  in  order  to  help  us  to  realize  what  our  schools 
really  mean  in  terms  of  success  or  failure,  and  we  need  it  in  order  to 
interpret  correctly  the  statistics  of  elimination. 

"Just  what  we  have  accomplished  for  this  type  of  pupil  I  do  not 
know  —  perhaps  it  is  not  intended  that  we  shall  know  —  but  I 
believe  that  the  effort  is  worth  continuing  and  I  have  sufficient 
faith  in  humanity  to  believe  that  the  results  will  be  commensurate 
with  the  responsibility."  ^ 

2.    REQUIREMENTS   FOR   SUCCESS 

Successful  conduct  of  any  employment  agency  depends 
upon  two  factors,  trained  personnel  and  satisfactory 
mechanical  equipment. 

A.  Trained  personnel.  What  do  we  mean  by  trained 
personnel  ?  ^  That  the  superintendent  of  every  office 
shall  approach  the  problems  involved  in  employment 
from  a  professional  point  of  view.  That  he  shall  see  to 
it  that  his  own  services  are  professional  in  character  and 
shall  understand  how  to  develop  a  corps  of  professional 
assistants.  Carried  to  its  legitimate  conclusion  this 
means  that  the  entire  personnel  will  be  scientific  students 
of  employment  problems  and  that  it  will  be  able  to  make 
definite  contributions  toward  the  solution  of  the  labor 
problem.' 

The  following  fundamental  requirements  for  junior 
placement  superintendents  are  enumerated  —  not  be- 
cause such  requirements  are  as  yet  standardized  or  even 
generally  agreed  upon  —  not  because  we  have  been  able 

»  Reed,  Anna  Y.,  "Vocational  Guidance  Report,"  pp.  16-17. 

*  Native  ability  counts  for  much,  but  it  can  be  made  far  more  useful  by  training. 
At  present  all  enter  more  or  less  as  apprentices.  Leaders  and  led  are,  as  Miss 
Odencrantz  implies,  almost  equally  ignorant  and  inerperienced. 

'  It  is  assumed  that  every  trained  employment  worker  will  be  able  to,  and  will, 
distinguish  sharply  between  the  labor  problem  and  labor  controversies ;  that  he 
will  make  his  full  contribution  to  the  solution  of  the  former  and  avoid  all  participa- 
tion in  the  latter. 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS     95 

to  secure  superintendents  who  meet  such  specifications 
—  but  because  it  is  desirable,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  to 
standardize  specifications  as  a  working  hypothesis : 

(1)  The  placement  ofl&ce  is  the  functioning  agency  for 
both  education  and  occupations ;  therefore,  office  superin- 
tendents should  understand  the  value  of  both  educational 
opportunities  and  employment  opportunities.  If  this 
combination  of  qualifications  cannot  be  found  it  is  some- 
times difficult  to  determine  which  is  the  more  essential. 
Local  conditions  must  be  considered,  but,  on  the  whole, 
the  man  trained  in  business  requirements  is  probably  the 
better  risk:  (a)  because  changes  in  the  business  world 
are  occurring  more  rapidly  than  in  the  educational  field, 
and  (6)  because  the  prospective  labor  supply  is  already 
pooled  under  educational  specialists  who  can  easily  supply 
pedagogical  deficiencies,  whereas  there  is  no  other  point 
of  contact  with  the  business  world.  The  limited  experience 
of  the  junior  division  indicates  that  the  average  educator 
and  the  average  social  worker  are  ill  equipped  for  junior 
employment  service.  This  conclusion  is  emphasized  by 
the  fact  that  educators  and  social  workers  have  had  the 
monopoly  of  the  field  for  15  years  and  have  accomplished 
relatively  little.^  It  would  seem  fair  to  assume  that 
future  progress  depends  upon  the  introduction  of  an 
element  which  the  schools  do  not  command  and  have  never 
attempted  to  introduce. 

(2)  Office  superintendents  must  have  the  courage  and 
the  initiative  of  pioneers  —  must  realize  the  constructive 
value  of  mistakes  and  know  how  to  profit  by  them ; 

(3)  They  must  realize  that  economic  and  social  progress 
depend  upon  expert  diagnosis  and  community  education ; 

'  The  value  of  the  service  rendered  by  schools,  philanthropic  organizations,  and 
business  men  has  been  mentioned  on  pages  36  to  59.  That  they  have  indicated  the 
need  rather  than  accomplished  the  task  is  due  to  certain  factors  discussed  on  pages 
62  to  66. 


96  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

(4)  Understand  their  own  functions  in  relation  to  the 
functions  of  employment  managers  and  be  able  to  co- 
operate with  such  officials,  as  well  as  with  the  schools, 
in  reducing  labor  turnover  and  introducing  progressive 
employment  methods ; 

(5)  Maintain  a  strictly  neutral  attitude  in  the  un- 
fortunate, and  possibly  inevitable,  conflicts  between  two 
parties  traditionally  opposed  to  one  another ; 

(6)  Possess  organizing  and  executive  ability  (a)  in 
meeting  the  immediate  demands  of  both  classes  of  patrons, 
and  (6)  in  making  their  offices  permanent  laboratories  for 
the  scientific  study  of  problems  of  employment  and  un- 
employment ; 

(7)  Maturity  of  judgment,  personality  which  com- 
mands respect  and  invites  confidence,  practical  knowledge 
of  psychology  involving  keen  analysis  of  human  nature* 
and  ability  to  secure  confidential  information  often  given 
private,  rarely  public  employment  agencies,  are  all  im- 
portant assets  for  an  office  superintendent ; 

(8)  Finally,  office  superintendents  occupy  a  position 
more  or  less  similar  to  that  of  school  superintendents  and 
should  be  extremely  careful  of  the  example  of  personal 
habits. 

If  an  employment  office  is  to  gain  the  confidence  and 
support  of  business  houses  by  supplying  the  type  of 
workers  who  fit  positions ;  of  workers  by  referring  them 
to  positions  suited  to  their  abilities ;  and  of  schools  by  the 
collection  and  sympathetic  use  of  employment  reactions, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  the  final  analysis,  success 
depends  upon  the  knowledge  and  judgment  used  in  mak- 
ing each  individual  placement.     Certain  prime  qualifi- 

*  No  discussion  as  to  the  value  of  specialists  in  character  analysis  is  necessary. 
Psychologists  have  not  yet  indorsed  their  methods,  nor  found  value  in  their 
results. 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS      97 

cations  must  not  be  overlooked  in  selecting  a  corps  of 
assistants : 

a.  Absolute  impartiality  in  dealing  with  capital  and 
labor.  Only  such  employees  as  can  win  the  confidence  of 
both  should  be  retained  in  the  corps. 

h.  Qualified  employees  should  be  protected  in  their 
tenure  and  should  be  required  to  make  definite  contribu- 
tions toward  establishing  the  service  on  a  professional 
basis. 

c.  Ability  to  find  out  what  the  young  applicant  has 
to  invest  in  order  that  the  office  may  help  him  to  capitalize 
his  powers  and  develop  his  potentialities,  whether  by 
advanced  educational  courses  or  by  other  means. 

d.  Realization  of  their  responsibility  for  preventing 
the  waste  of  human  ability  which  comes  from  misdirected 
child  energy. 

e.  Realization  of  the  fact  that  jobs  as  well  as  people 
have  personality.  Ability  to  visualize  positions  to  which 
they  refer  applicants ;  and  ability  to  visualize  the  person 
whom  they  refer,  in  the  jobs  to  which  referred.  Business 
men  want  to  deal  with  agencies  which  are  capable  of 
analyzing,  interpreting,  and  meeting  their  needs. 

/.  Ability  to  distinguish  between  profitable  and  un- 
profitable customers  (employers  and  employees  alike)  and 
to  acquire  methods  whereby  many  of  the  latter  may  be 
transformed  into  the  former. 

g.  Ability  to  appreciate,  or  to  like,  every  employment. 
No  organization  can  pool  employment  opportunities  if 
there  be  mental  reservations  in  the  minds  of  the  corps  as 
to  the  desirability  of  any  line  of  work  which  is  necessary 
for  the  welfare  of  society  and  is  recognized  as  a  legitimate 
occupation.  Not  all  occupations  are  vocations ;  not  all 
workers  are  fitted  for  vocations,  but  every  boy  or  girl 
who  has  been  educated  at  public  expense  should  be  pre- 


98  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

pared  to  make  a  success  of  some  occupation  which  will 
make  him  economically  independent  and  at  the  same  time 
a  contributor  to  the  social  and  economic  needs  of  his 
country.  It  is  the  first  duty  of  a  placement  secretary  to 
find  out  which  one  of  all  the  recognized  occupations  is 
the  best  occupation  for  the  individual  applicant  under 
consideration,  and  then,  for  the  time  being,  vocational 
psychology  demands  that  that  one  occupation  become  to 
him  the  most  desirable  of  all  occupations,  and  that  he 
have  the  ability  to  transfer  his  own  estimate  of  its  value 
to  the  applicant.  No  course  in  vocational  information 
is  truly  educational  until  it  has  been  transformed  into 
vocational  inspiration  —  until  a  new  type  of  educator  is 
on  the  market,  much  of  this  task  must  be  performed  by 
the  placement  secretary.  In  more  than  one  instance 
complete  and  inexcusable  failure  to  meet  the  needs  of 
industry  has  been  directly  traceable  to  the  fact  that 
the  occupation  was  distasteful  to  the  placement  agent. 
Ability  to  put  oneself  in  the  other  fellow's  place  is  a  very 
rare  quality,  whether  applied  to  interpretation  of  acts 
and  motives  or  to  employment  values. 

Lest  my  viewpoint  be  misunderstood,  I  offer  an  illus- 
tration demonstrating  the  theory  which  I  have  advanced 
in  actual  practice.  The  superintendent  of  one  of  our 
offices  called  my  attention  to  the  fact  that,  whereas  his 
office  was  doing  an  exceptionally  fine  piece  oi  placement 
work  as  a  whole,  for  some  reason  or  other  large  numbers 
of  requests  from  employers  representing  one  specific 
occupation  were  unfilled,  and  his  placement  secretary 
who  handled  that  specific  industry  had  declared  it  im- 
possible to  get  applicants  of  the  better  class,  which  was 
what  had  been  asked,  to  even  consider  the  positions.  The 
industry  was  desirable,  the  salary  satisfactory,  but  high 
school  boys  and  girls  would  not  take  the  positions.     As 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS      99 

he  analyzed  the  problem,  he  detected  one  obvious  reason 
and  suspected  a  second.  The  first  and  obvious  reason 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  placement  secretary  saw  noth- 
ing in  the  occupation  for  herself,  and  hence  was  unable  to 
see  that  it  might  offer  valuable  opportunities  to  another. 
She  not  only  failed  to  recognize  and  capitalize  the  possible 
interest  of  any  applicant  in  that  industry,  but  by  her 
very  attitude  toward  it  she  killed  any  enthusiasm  which 
any  applicant  might  have  possessed.  This  phase  of  the 
problem  might  be  solved  by  changing  the  attitude  of 
the  placement  secretary,  by  transferring  responsibility 
for  placement  in  that  industry  to  another  secretary,  or  if 
personal  antipathy  were  obvious  with  reference  to  other  in- 
dustries, by  discontinuing  her  from  the  service.  The  sus- 
pected reason  for  distaste  relative  to  this  industry  appeared 
to  the  superintendent  as  social.  If  the  occupation  was 
recognized  as  desirable,  if  the  salary  were  commensurate 
with  abilities  sought  and  demands  made,  if  promotional 
opportunities  were  present,  might  it  not  be  that  the  social 
character  of  the  personnel  was  in  question  ?  The  facts,  re- 
vealed by  careful  statistical  investigations,  illustrate  how 
impossible  it  is  for  a  public  employment  office  to  function 
efiiciently  without  utilizing  research  abilities,^  and  it  also 
indicates  why  I  have  included  in  the  crude  outline  for  test- 
ing occupations  in  the  classroom.  No.  11  —  Character  of 
co-workers,  and  No.  14  —  Social  standing.  Among 
other  facts,  research  revealed  that  77  per  cent  of  the  em- 
ployees in  that  occupation  over  23  years  of  age  had  never 
gone  beyond  the  8th  grade.  Employers  were  very  quick 
to  see  that  it  was  not  reasonable  to  ask  high  school  gradu- 
ates to  accept  positions  which  to  so  great  an  extent  had 
not  been  able  to  attract  workers  of  more  than  sixth  and 

•  In  this  particular  instance  the  employers  made  the  study,  but  had  they  not 
done  80  the  employment  office  should  have  been  prepared  to  do  so. 


100  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

seventh  grade  qualifications.  The  result  of  this  study  is 
a  cooperative  agreement  between  the  Superintendent^ 
and  the  industry  for  the  type  of  vocational  training 
which  will  raise  the  standard  of  the  personnel  and  offer 
better  opportunities  to  better  educated  boys  and  girls. 
And  still,  there  remain  many  who  claim  that  if  a  public 
employment  office  meets  the  demands  of  industry  it  is 
bound  to  exploit  the  worker !  A  scientific  placement 
office  studies  the  employment  situation  and  uses  its  facts 
for  the  betterment  of  American  economic  life.  It  realizes 
that  personal  prejudice  against  any  occupation  on  the 
part  of  its  corps  is  just  as  unfair  to  the  applicant  who 
might  be  successful  and  happy  in  that  occupation,  as  is 
the  employer  who  subordinates  the  welfare  of  his  em- 
ployees to  his  personal  whims  and  desires. 

h.  Realization  of  the  importance  of  the  employment 
office  as  an  agency  for  finding  and  solving  the  problems 
involved  in  labor  turnover. 

i.  Personality,  knowledge  of  psychology,  care  in  per- 
sonal habits,  etc.,  are  prerequisites  for  any  employment 
position.^ 

*  The  Superintendent  of  Junior  Placement  for  the  United  States  Employment 
Service  is  Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools  with  entire  charge  of  vocational 
education.  The  desirability  of  such  an  arrangement  is  obvious  and  is  fostered  by 
the  United  States  Employment  Service  whenever  the  public  schools  have  a  practical 
vocational  expert  in  the  system  who  is  available. 

2  No  mention  has  been  made  of  the  use  of  volunteers  as  counselors  because  we 
have  already  outgrown  the  volunteer  stage  of  vocational  guidance.  The  use  of 
volunteers  has  been  rather  common  in  the  initial  stages  and  is  widely  in  use  in 
Great  Britain.  Lack  of  professional  counselors,  lack  of  funds  to  employ  them,  and 
the  general  type  of  those  who  have  regarded  volunteer  efforts  as  their  "bit"  of 
social  service  contribution  have  been  the  controlling  factors  in  the  past.  We 
know  now  that  vocational  guidance  and  placement  is  not  an  incidental  occupation 
but  a  profession  ;  that  it  is  a  great  public  responsibility  and  not  a  bit  of  social  serv- 
ice, and  that  those  of  us  who  indorse  untrained  volunteer  workers  are  piling  up 
more  crimes  against  boys  and  girls  in  the  name  of  education.  Business  men  who 
volunteer  expert  advice  are  not  included  in  this  class.  They  are  a  very  desirable 
and  a  very  important  asset  in  supplementing  the  work  of  counselors.  The  Occu- 
pational Guidance  Service  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  has  a  very  valuable  system  of  securing 
and  utilizing  this  type  of  expert  service. 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS     101 

Assuming  a  trained  personnel  and  ability  to  pool  and 
distribute  the  labor  supply  and  demand  in  such  a  manner 
that  any  given  employment  ofl&ce  makes  the  closest 
possible  approach  to  a  monopoly,  there  is  still  one  very 
essential  prerequisite  to  success  —  desirable  location, 
satisfactory  physical  arrangement  within  the  ofl5ce,  and 
necessary  mechanical  equipment. 

B.  Location  and  equipment  of  office.  If,  in  any  com- 
munity, it  is  impossible  to  have  both  trained  personnel 
and  a  satisfactory  office,  without  any  hesitation  let  us 
all  choose  the  trained  personnel.  Sooner  or  later  cus- 
tomers will  seek  an  efficient  salesman  who  has  something 
of  value  to  offer  irrespective  of  his  location.  On  the 
other  hand,  satisfactory  location  and  standardized  office 
conditions  make  for  increased  efficiency,  and  should  be 
secured  whenever  possible.  They  eliminate  duplication 
of  effort,  facilitate  procedure,  avoid  waste,  and  create  an 
atmosphere  comparable  to  that  of  high  class  business 
offices. 

The  location  and  equipment  of  employment  offices 
will  be  treated  briefly  under  the  following  heads : 

(1)  Office  location. 

(2)  Reception  room. 

(3)  Consultation  room. 

(4)  Testing  laboratory. 

(5)  Work  room. 

(6)  The  day's  work. 

(1)  Office  location.  Certain  fundamental  principles  gov- 
ern the  selection  of  a  location  for  any  business  purpose. 
Ability  to  apply  these  principles  in  the  selection  of  a 
location  in  any  given  city  for  any  specific  purpose  requires 
one  to  keep^  constantly  in  mind  :  (a)  the  character  of  the 
business,  (6)  the  type  of  customer  to  whom  appeal  is  to 
be  made,  and  (c)  the  overhead  in  proportion  to  net  re- 


102  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

turns.  In  deciding  upon  the  relative  value  of  locations 
for  public  employment  offices  we  must  remember  that  the 
character  of  our  business  is  retail  selling ;  that  our  goods 
(positions  and  workers)  are  neither  standardized  nor 
self -selling ;  that  personal  inspection  prior  to  closing  a 
sale  is  desirable  if  not  absolutely  essential,  and  that  we 
are  engaged  in  a  new  business  venture  with  no  estabUshed 
reputation  to  fall  back  upon.  Moreover,  we  aim  to  become 
a  monopoly  in  a  field  wherein  we  shall  encounter  much 
keen  and  skillful  competition ;  and  the  pubUc  expects  us 
to  establish  and  conduct  our  business  as  cheaply  as  is 
possible,  with  no  definite  standards  by  which  to  determine 
how  cheaply  that  can  be.  The  best  location,  then,  is  the 
location  which  permits  our  business  to  be  self-advertising 
to  the  largest  number  of  possible  customers,  to  catch 
both  types  of  customers  as  they  travel  to  and  from  their 
places  of  business,  and  to  afford  easy  access  during  business 
hours. 

Most  of  our  larger  cities  will  maintain  at  least  two 
junior  offices,  one  for  14  to  16  years  old  applicants ;  the 
other  for  those  16  to  21  years  of  age.  Junior  workers 
between  14  and  16  are  now  almost  universally  obliged  to 
secure  employment  certificates  and  register  for  continua- 
tion-school classes  prior  to  legal  employment.  Both  of 
these  functions  belong  to,  or  have  usually  been  delegated 
to,  the  school  system.  Employment  advice  and  place- 
ment is  a  third  function  so  closely  related  to  the  other  two 
that  it  is  neither  desirable  nor  logical  to  attempt  to  separate 
it  from  them.  One  after  another  young  wage  earners 
from  the  same  family  go  through  the  same  processes  — 
certification  —  continuation-school  registration  —  employ- 
ment. They  come  to  feel  very  much  at  home  in  the  office, 
hence  it  is  highly  recommended  that,  whenever  local  con- 
ditions permit,  one  junior  employment  office  be  located 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS     103 

in  the  building  in  which  continuation  school  pupils  regis- 
ter. There  are  other  advantages  in  housing  these  inti- 
mately related  departments  imder  the  same  roof.  Coun- 
selors use  the  same  records,  they  keep  in  closer  touch 
with  the  schools  and  can  anticipate  to  a  larger  degree 
the  number  of  pupils  who  contemplate  leaving  school  or 
changing  positions,  and  they  can  do  much  to  encourage 
pupils  to  seek  advice  before  applying  for  positions.  At 
the  present  time  the  weakest  point  in  our  junior  service 
is  failure  of  the  schools  and  the  service  to  function  co- 
operatively in  pooling  the  14  and  15  year  old  labor  supply 
before  it  has  distributed  itself  without  advice  and  often 
to  great  personal  disadvantage. 

The  office  for  juniors  16  to  21  should  be  centrally  located 
for  both  employees  and  employers  and  without  any 
especial  reference  to  the  educational  system.  Some 
advocate  ground  floor  locations.  The  advantage  of  the 
ground  floor  is  also  its  disadvantage  —  publicity.  Some 
insist  upon  entire  separation  of  sexes  even  to  entrances 
on  different  streets.  Separation  of  sexes  should  be  en- 
couraged wherever  such  separation  is  necessary  in  order 
to  protect  women  and  girls  from  unpleasant  association 
with  large  numbers  of  the  rougher  element  which  is  apt 
to  accumulate  about  ofiices  placing  common  labor.  Sepa- 
ration of  women  from  girls,  and  men  from  boys,  wherever 
physical  or  moral  well-being  is  involved,  is  also  desirable, 
but  I  am  not  yet  ready  to  vote  affii-matively  for  the  sepa- 
ration of  sexes  in  junior  offices  purely  on  a  sex  basis.  Our 
boys  and  girls  are  accustomed  to  being  together  in  the 
public  schools,  they  attend  continuation  and  evening 
schools  together,  they  obtain  employment  certificates 
in  the  same  office,  and  they  will  work  side  by  side  after 
positions  are  secured.  Why  require  complete  separa- 
tion at  the  time  of  applying  for  positions  ?    In  some  sec- 


104  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

tions  of  large  cities  it  might  be  desirable  to  have  offices 
for  certain  classes  of  junior  labor  18  to  21  where  no  other 
class  was  registered. 

Placement  of  juniors  in  the  same  office  with  adults  has 
both  its  opponents  and  its  advocates.  If  an  adult  office 
be  organized  on  a  professional  basis  and  permits  inter- 
change of  workers,  sharing  of  overhead,  better  distribu- 
tion of  positions  and  workers,  the  reaction  on  both  junior 
and  adult  is  desirable.  Junior  workers  will  obtain  a  much 
broader  idea  of  the  occupational  field  and  of  the  various 
lines  of  promotion  by  contact  with  older  men  and  women. 

Branch  offices  are  desirable  in  those  portions  of  the  city 
in  which  the  supply  of  junior  labor  is  greatest,  usually  in 
school  buildings,  both  high  and  elementary.  Y.  M.  C. 
A.'s  and  other  welfare  organizations  are  desirable  from 
the  standpoint  of  contact  with  juniors,  and  their  efforts 
in  this  direction  should  be  encouraged  and  coordinated. 
Reports  from  these  branch  offices  should,  however,  be 
centralized  daily  in  the  Administrative  Office  for  Junior 
Work.  Proper  signs  on  the  outside  of  the  building  should 
indicate  clearly  the  class  of  work  performed  within,  and 
should  designate  the  exact  location  of  the  office  in  terms 
comprehensible  even  to  those  of  younger  years. 

(2)  The  reception  room.  The  reception  room  should 
be  large  and  airy,  admitting  as  much  natural  light  as 
possible.  The  equipment  should  consist  of  a  large  table 
upon  which  magazines  and  Hterature  pertaining  to  and 
of  interest  to  boys  and  girls  may  be  placed.  Sufficient 
chairs  to  acconmiodate  the  normal  volume  of  applicants 
should  be  placed  around  the  room.  The  arrangement 
of  this  room  and  its  first  impression  on  the  youth  is  of 
vital  importance.  Its  object  must  be  to  inspire  confi- 
dence in  the  applicant,  thus  reducing  to  a  minimum  the 
nervousness  usually  found  in  any  young  boy  or  girl. 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS    105 

Appropriate  signs  on  the  walls  attract  considerable  atten- 
tion, and  sometimes  are  retained  in  the  minds  of  the 
applicants  long  after  leaving  the  office.  Their  use  is 
strongly  recommended.  The  Counselor  at  the  close  of 
each  interview  should  appear  in  the  reception  room  and 
cordially  greet  the  newcomers,  requesting  them  to  patiently 
await  their  turn.  An  action  of  this  kind,  accompanied 
by  a  few  words  of  greeting,  will  go  far  toward  securing  the 
good  will  and  confidence  of  the  appHcant.  All  possible 
efforts  should  concentrate  in  this  room  to  place  the  boy 
or  girl  at  ease,  and  thus  facihtate  the  interview  which  is 
to  follow.  It  hardly  need  be  stated  that  this  room  must 
be  kept  orderly  and  neat  at  all  times  and  that  familiarity 
and  unbecoming  conduct  must  not  be  tolerated. 

(3)  The  consultation  room.  The  most  desirable  location 
for  this  room  is  quite  naturally  adjoining  the  reception 
room,  or  as  contiguous  as  possible.  It  should,  of  course, 
afford  full  privacy  and  be  so  located  as  to  be  free  from 
noise  or  other  distractions.  It  is  here  that  the  Counselor 
is  seen  at  his  best,  and  must  place  his  apphcant  at  his 
best.  The  arrangement  and  equipment  of  this  room  is, 
therefore,  of  utmost  importance.  The  impression  made 
upon  young  minds  is  determined  largely  by  the  type  of 
office  equipment  and  the  orderfiness  and  efficiency  of  its 
use.  It  is  from  this  that  the  junior  will  receive  his  first, 
and  sometimes  lasting,  lessons  in  business  efficiency  — 
something  which  is  of  primary  importance  in  the  indus- 
trial world.  For  this  reason  alone,  it  seems  pertinent 
that  each  unit  of  equipment  should  be  taken  up  in  detail. 

a.  The  desk  and  its  equipment. 

The  desk  is  the  business  ''work  bench."  A  flat-top 
desk  fully  satisfies  the  requirements  of  the  work.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  this  desk  is  a  work  bench 
and  not  a  storehouse.     "The  busier  the  man,  the  clearer 


106  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

the  desk"  has  been  well  said.  It  must  always  be  cleared 
for  action,  both  inside  and  outside.  Its  appearance 
very  naturally  reflects  the  state  of  mind  of  its  occupant 
—  cleared  for  action.  All  unnecessary  papers,  pens, 
implements,  appliances,  etc.,  shoiild  be  kept  in  their 
proper  place  in  the  equipment  drawer.  A  glass  top  may 
be  used,  under  which  telephone  numbers,  engagement 
lists,  and  other  data  frequently  used  may  be  filed  for 
ready  reference.  Letters,  papers,  cards,  etc.,  should 
never  htter  the  desk,  but  be  placed  immediately  in  their 
proper  places,  otherwise  they  create  confusion,  each  one 
prodding  the  mind  for  solution  and  diverting  the  atten- 
tion. The  constant  use  of  the  "work  organizer,"  an 
ingenious  device  which  provides  a  ready  pocket  for  each 
letter  or  paper,  practically  making  an  appointment  with 
each  task,  is  indispensable  in  desk  efiiciency.  Stock 
forms  and  files  in  constant  use  should  be  within  the  reach 
of  the  counselor,  thus  reheving  the  necessity  of  constant 
moving  and  interruption  of  thought. 

h.  Files  and  filing  systems. 

For  the  effective  and  proper  conduct  of  the  junior  work 
it  seems  advisable  to  install  seven  separate  files,  namely : 
the  applicants'  file,  employers'  file,  placement  and  follow- 
up  file,  educational  file,  school  record  file,  letter  file,  and 
suggestion  file.  The  first  four  of  these  files  can  be  con- 
veniently stored  in  a  cabinet  accommodating  four  5"x8"' 
drawers.  It  is  recommended  that  the  suggestion  file  be 
placed  on  the  desk  readily  accessible  for  suggestions  or 
ideas  received  during  the  course  of  the  day's  work. 

The  applicants'  file  should  contain  the  card  filled  out 
by  the  counselor  in  the  interview  with  the  applicant. 
All  necessary  information  which  it  is  deemed  advisable  to 
secure  should  be  included,  due  consideration  being  given 
to  the  needs  of  the  district  or  community.    This  is  an 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS     107 

active  file  from  which  referrals  are  to  be  made.  Cross- 
indexing  according  to  occupations  or  quahfications  may 
or  may  not  be  desirable  —  volume  of  work  is  a  controlling 
factor  in  deciding. 

The  employers^  file  should  contain  requisitions  from  the 
employer  filled  out  on  an  appropriate  card  ^  with  full 
information  regarding  necessary  qualifications  for  the 
position,  and  the  advantages  it  offers.  An  index  according 
to  occupations  may  be  used  whenever  desirable. 

The  'placement  and  follow-up  file  may  be  one  or  two  files, 
as  best  meets  the  needs  of  the  office.  It  includes  the 
cards  of  applicants  who  have  been  reported  placed,  filed 
alphabetically  ready  for  follow-up.  It  also  includes  the 
cards  of  employers  whose  orders  have  been  filled,  filed 
by  firm  name.  If  one  file  be  used,  the  front  section  may 
contain  placements  and  the  rear  section  orders  filled. 
Some  offices  combine  appficants'  file  and  employers'  file 
in  the  same  manner. 

The  educational  file  should  contain  the  names,  addresses, 
and  other  neces'sary  data  with  reference  to  the  school 
systems  —  public,  private,  apprentice,  technical,  etc. 
It  should  contain  information  regarding  the  probable 
number  of  pupils  to  be  released  at  certain  periods  who 
would  register  at  the  employment  office. 

The  school  record  file  should  contain  all  the  information 
secured  from  educational  institutions,  and  probably  from 
other  social  agencies  also,  which  is  of  value  in  guidance 
and  placement.  If  continuation,  evening,  or  other  school 
be  attended  subsequent  to  placen^ent,  all  additional  in- 

'  Adult  offices  connected  with  the  United  States  Employment  Service  use  a 
standardized  federal  set  of  forms  and  reports.  Several  cities  were  using  junior 
forms  prior  to  connection  with  the  government,  and  since  there  are  no  data  upon 
which  to  base  decisions  as  to  what  facts  are  nationally  essential  and  what  of  local 
value  only,  it  has  seemed  best  to  permit  each  city  to  use  its  own  forms,  or  the  adult 
forms,  until  experience  furnishes  a  broader  basis  for  standardization.  Probably 
within  the  next  few  months  an  effort  will  be  made  toward  partial  standardization. 


108  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

formation  secured  from  such  sources  should  be  placed 
in  the  same  file. 

Letter  files  should  be  indexed  by  correspondence  folders 
arranged  alphabetically. 

As  these  files  become  full,  their  contents  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  larger  files  for  permanent  records.  While  it  is 
thought  that  these  seven  files  will  cover  the  requirements 
of  an  office,  the  needs  of  any  particular  office  will  in  a 
large  measure  determine  what  constitutes  efficient  filing. 
The  three  essentials  of  an  efficient  filing  system  are : 
availability  of  records,  simplicity,  and  suitability.  Cards 
and  other  material  must  be  filed  daily  in  their  proper 
places.   Left-overs  are  unnecessary  and  preclude  efficiency. 

The  private  telephone,  chairs,  bookcase,  and  possibly 
office  table,  complete  the  equipment  necessary  for  the 
consultation  room.  The  telephone  should  be  readily 
accessible  to  the  occupant  at  his  desk.  It  should  be  used 
only  for  outgoing  and  emergency  incoming  calls,  as  dis- 
tractions of  any  kind  interfere  with  the  proper  analysis 
of  the  applicant.  Chairs  sufficient  to  accommodate  two 
or  more  applicants  should  be  at  hand.  The  multiple-unit 
bookcase  for  books  on  vocational  subjects,  trade  tests, 
employment  psychology,  office  management,  and  other 
pertinent  literature  is  essential  for  scientific  counseling. 
The  table  furnishes  a  convenient  place  for  the  display  of 
charts,  graphs,  periodicals,  and  other  material  not  in 
constant  use  on  the  desk.^ 

(4)  The  testing  laboratory.  Webster  defines  "  testing  " 
as  "  trying  the  truth,  genuineness  or  quality  of,  by  experi- 
ment, or  by  some  principle  or  standard."  The  testing 
laboratory,  therefore,  becomes  the  limelight  of  verification, 

•  The  suggestions  offered  in  this  section  are  subject  to  changes  of  any  kind  which 
make  for  local  eflSciency.  The  main  thought  never  to  be  lost  sight  of  is  —  economy 
of  time,  energy,  space. 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS     109 

and  transforms  the  theory  "  I  think  "  into  the  practice 
"  I  know."  It  ehminates  the  guess,  the  untruth,  or  the 
exaggeration,  and  places  the  applicant's  qualifications  on 
a  squarely  salable  basis.  Occupational  misfits,  finding 
their  Waterloo  here,  can  be  spared  the  humiliation  of  an 
unsatisfactory  interview  with  a  prospective  employer. 
Through  this  laboratory,  vocational  guidance  may  have 
its  inception  in  eliminating  the  misfits  and  pointing  the 
remedy.  Through  its  testing  apparatus,  —  practical  in 
every  sense  of  the  word,  —  applicants  can  be  assured  of  at 
least  the  opportunity  of  a  business  contact  with  a  certain 
standard  rating,  and  employers  spared  unnecessary  try- 
outs  and  inconveniences  incident  to  the  newcomers. 

The  equipment  of  this  laboratory  will  be  limited  by 
space  and  funds  available,  but  such  mechanical  appliances 
as  typewriters,  dictaphones,  mimeographs,  calculating 
machines,  and  other  office  equipment  are  requisite. 
Factory  and  shop  machines  are  too  cumbersome  to  in- 
stall, but  by  the  close  application  of  the  Army  Trade 
Tests  and  the  technical  interviews  developed  by  the 
United  States  Employment  Service,  a  very  good  idea  of 
the  scope  of  the  applicant's  knowledge  can  be  obtained. 
The  numerous  tests,  both  practical  and  mental,  could  go 
on  ad  infinitum.  Each  counselor  must,  therefore,  select 
those  that  will  most  meet  his  needs  and  those  of  his 
prospective  customers.  Only  those  bearing  the  highest 
indorsement  as  "  standard  "  should  be  utilized. 

(5)  The  work  room.  An  increase  in  the  volume  of 
business  may  necessitate  what  the  writer  terms  a  "  work 
room."  It  serves  a  very  useful  purpose  in  accommodating 
secretaries,  stenographers,  typists,  statisticians,  and  other 
office  assistants.  The  permanent  records  and  files  should 
be  kept  here,  and  also  all  work  of  a  mechanical  nature 
could  be  performed  here  in  order  that  the  counselor's 


110  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

room  may  contain  only  that  which  is  in  constant  use. 
The  necessity  of  this  room,  however,  is  strictly  limited 
to  the  larger  offices  and  does  not  constitute  a  prerequisite 
of  the  majority  of  junior  offices. 

(6)  The  day^s  work.  Too  much  importance  cannot  be 
laid  on  planning  ahead  the  day's  work.  "  He,  who  every 
morning  plans  the  transactions  of  the  day  and  follows  out 
that  plan,  holds  a  thread  that  will  carry  him  through  the 
labyrinth  of  the  most  busy  life."  An  analysis  of  the 
day's  work  is  essential  to  every  well-conducted  office. 
"  Precision  is  impossible  without  prevision."  Each  task 
should  be  allotted  its  own  time,  and  a  schedule  of  work, 
resembling  a  timetable,  should  be  on  every  counselor's 
desk  as  his  daily  guide.  The  hours  of  a  junior  office 
should  correspond  to  the  business  hours  of  the  community. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  a  junior  division  serves 
employers  as  well  as  employees,  prospective  and  real; 
therefore  neither  school  hours  nor  school  holidays  should 
control  junior  office  hours.  As  a  very  general  statement, 
it  would  seem  that  the  hours  from  eight  o'clock  in  the 
morning  to  five-thirty  or  six  in  the  evening  are  advisable. 
Shifts  within  the  offices  can  be  made  to  accommodate  this 
schedule. 

It  is  important  and  essential  that  the  office  be  accessible 
to  employers  during  their  full  business  hours.  Employ- 
ment plans  are  usually  developed  in  the  early  morning 
and  late  afternoon.  Every  possible  effort  should  be  put 
forth  to  establish  cordial  and  intimate  business  relations 
with  employers  of  labor  and  to  meet  their  demands. 
They  are  the  market  for  "  the  goods  "  that  are  for  sale. 
The  early  morning  hours  also  afford  ample  opportunity 
for  planning  the  tasks  of  the  day,  securing  requisitions 
from  employers,  making  appointments,  following-up,  etc. 
Interviews  can  then  be  conducted  without  interruption, 


FUNCTIONS  AND  METHODS  OF  PLACEMENTS     111 

except  in  extraordinary  cases.  The  day's  schedule  can 
be  so  systematized  that  the  unexpected  will  be  unusual. 
By  this  means  only  can  attention  be  concentrated  on  the 
task  at  hand.  It  has  been  said  by  the  president  of  a 
well-known  corporation,  "  I  believe  in  knowing  just 
what  I  am  doing  and  where  I  hope  to  land."  So  should 
the  counselor. 

The  question  of  consultation  after  office  hours,  on 
Sundays  and  holidays,  must  be  left  to  the  wise  discretion 
of  the  counselor.  The  needs  of  the  community  should 
always  guide  in  policies  of  the  office,  keeping  in  mind 
that  the  junior  division  always  stands  primarily  for 
"  Service." 


CHAPTER  V 

FUNCTIONS   OF  A  JUNIOR   EMPLOYMENT 
OFFICE 

Trained  personnel,  satisfactory  physical  equipment, 
practical  realization  of  the  fact  that  in  character  a  public 
employment  office  is  a  sales  agency  and  should  be  a 
monopoly,  is  the  foundation  upon  which  we  hope  to 
build  an  efficient  public  service  which  will  pool  and 
distribute  the  entire  labor  supply  and  demand  of  the 
country.  The  next  step  is  detailed  analysis  of  the  main 
functions  of  a  junior  employment  office : 

(1)  Marketing  the  product  of  the  public  schools.  In 
other  words,  pooling  the  junior  labor  supply  at  its  source 
and  distributing  it  in  such  a  manner  that  each  individual 
may  realize  his  best  possibilities  and  contribute  his 
utmost  to  the  welfare  of  society. 

(2)  Pooling  the  entire  junior  labor  supply  and  demand. 

(3)  Distributing  the  entire  junior  labor  supply  and 
demand. 

(4)  Collecting  and  disseminating  information  which 
will  help  the  schools  to  estimate  more  accurately  the 
social  and  economic  value  of  their  product  and  to  intro- 
duce such  curricula  changes  as  may  be  necessary  to  meet 
the  changing  demands  of  industry. 

(5)  Forecasting,  in  so  far  as  is  possible,  changes  in 
industrial  methods,  or  the  enactment  of  legislation  which 
will  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  number  and  type  of 
opportunities  open  to  junior  employees. 

112 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  113 

(6)  Bringing  back  under  educational  influence  boys  and 
girls  to  whom  further  educational  services  can  be  rendered. 

(7)  Cooperating  with  other  agencies  in  such  a  way  that 
duplication  of  effort  and  service  may  be  avoided. 

1.     MARKETING    THE    PRODUCT    OF    THE    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS^ 

The  most  important  group  comprised  in  the  junior 
labor  supply  is  the  product  of  the  various  educational 
systems  as  it  comes  directly  from  the  schoolroom  into  the 
labor  market.  If  the  educational  machinery  of  any  given 
city  has  been  set  in  motion  and  has  been  operating  effi- 
ciently, this  group  of  junior  workers  will  be  easily  pooled 
at  its  source.  It  will  include:  (1)  part-time  and  con- 
tinuation school  workers,  (2)  after-school  and  Saturday 
workers,  (3)  vacation  employees,  and  (4)  full-time  workers. 
Analyzed  from  another  point  of  view,  it  will  comprise: 

(1)  youth  of  exceptional  ability  with  specific  talents, 
frequently    including    executive    or    inventive    abilities, 

(2)  youth  of  average  abilities  who  offer  desirable  qualities 
but  who  are  followers  or  imitators  rather  than  leaders, 
and  (3)  boys  and  girls  of  low-grade  abilities  who  never 
exert  themselves  mentally  or  physically  unless  forced  to 
do  S0.2 

1  Public  schools  include  all  educational  agencies. 

'  No  one  has  yet  offered  a  satisfactory  classification  of  workers.  Mr.  Weaver 
finds  the  following  by  a  French  psychologist  "  helpful  and  crude"  : 

1.  Human  beings  who  work  to  eat  —  biological  specimens  —  vegetative  class. 

2.  Imitative  class. 

3.  Inventive  class. 

4.  Executive  class. 

We  have  already  noted  the  tendency  of  the  school  to  stifle  genius  and  initiative. 
If  we  follow  Mr.  Weaver's  classification  we  have  a  right  to  assume  that  there  is 
also  a  tendency  to  retain  iu  the  vegetative  class  a  certain  number  of  pupils  who 
possess  latent  talents  and  should  be  forced  to  develop  them.  Some  pupils  cannot 
progress,  but  whenever  teachers  permit  boys  and  girls  who  belong  to  the  higher 
groups,  to  remain  in  the  lower,  they  are  creating  causes  of  discontent  and  sowing 
the  seeds  of  anarchy. 
I 


114  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

Every  public-school  pupil  should  pass  from  the  school- 
room to  the  placement  office  accompanied  by  definite 
specifications  indicating  his  abilities,  aptitudes,  ambi- 
tions, etc. ;  whether  potentialities  be  present  or  lacking ; 
whether  he  be  generally  intelligent  and  efficient,  or 
whether  he  will  probably  never  be  so.  The  antiquated 
grading  system  in  vogue  in  the  educational  field  whereby 
"  excellents,"  "goods,"  "fairs,"  "poors,"  and  "fail- 
ures," based  upon  a  sort  of  unscientific  certainty,  are 
rather  promiscuously  distributed,  does  not  furnish  the 
type  of  specifications  the  employment  office  wants.  The 
method  has  been  previously  discussed  by  which  more 
valuable  grading  systems  have  been  instituted  in  a  few 
schools,  and  could  be  instituted  in  others.  The  method 
by  which  tlie  educational  function  was  connected  with 
the  employment  function  in  Seattle  proved  fairly  satis- 
factory and  has  met  with  equal  success  elsewhere : 

A  school-leaving  report  for  every  pupil  who  left  school 
came  automatically  to  the  vocational  office.  Estimates 
on  certain  character  qualities  were  included  in  this  report. 
Pupils  calling  at  the  vocational  office  for  placement  were 
not  recommended  for  positions  until  such  reports  had 
been  received  and  gone  over  point  by  point  with  the 
pupil.  Occasionally  a  teacher  filled  in  the  record  with- 
out consultation  with  the  pupil.  When  this  occurred  it 
indicated  that  the  teacher  was  missing  ane  of  her  greatest 
opportunities  for  pedagogical  service,  and  the  vocational 
office  attempted  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  discussing 
in  detail  the  assets  and  liabilities  which  the  pupil  himself 
felt  that  he  was  carrying  from  school  into  business  life. 
Sometimes  it  was  necessary  to  alter  teachers'  estimates 
before  they  were  transferred  to  employment  introductions. 
The  remainder  of  the  Seattle  procedure  is  self-explanatory, 
if  the  recommendation  blank  be  carefully  read.    Were  I 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  115 

to  have  the  privilege  of  being  a  classroom  teacher  again, 
I  would  never  permit  myself  to  deprive  any  pupil  of  the 
responsibility  of  grading  himself  on  character  quahties.^ 
As  the  Seattle  report  is  no  longer  available,  a  description 
of  the  method  employed  is  copied  from  page  86 : 

"The  second  plan  was  instituted  by  our  office  for  the  express 
purpose  of  forcing  pupils  to  reahze  that  education  in  all  forms  has 
a  meaning  for  life ;  that  habits  formed  in  school  will  be  carried 
over  into  business  life  and  will  make  for  either  success  or  failure. 
A  recommendation  blank  was  prepared  summarizing  the  require- 
ments for  which  there  seemed  to  be  a  unanimous  demand.  Every 
pupil  who  has  come  to  our  office  has  been  obliged  to  bring  the  school 
estimate  of  his  qualifications  as  indicated  in  the  blank.  Of  course 
there  is  much  difference  in  interpretation  of  terms,  and  much  di- 
versity in  grading  systems,  but  we  have  been  more  than  pleased 
with  the  returns  on  the  experiment.  Principals  and  teachers  feel 
that  it  has  been  especially  helpful : 

"  (1)  In  indicating  the  importance  of  right  habit  formation. 

"  (2)  In  connecting  school  with  life. 

"  (3)  In  lessening  trouble  with  discipline. 

"  (4)  In  broadening  the  service  of  the  teacher. 

"When  the  pupil  brings  his  estimate  to  the  office  it  forms  the 
basis  of  our  conference.  We  obtain  our  best  results  when  the  pupil 
and  teacher  have  already  been  over  the  strong  and  weak  points, 
discussing  the  value  of  one  and  the  disadvantage  of  the  other.  No 
matter  what  our  ideal,  American  life  is  still  very  largely  controlled 
by  the  dollar,  and  there  are  several  very  telhng  questions  which 
every  pupil  understands :  Would  you  be  willing  to  hire  yourself  ? 
What  does  any  business  house  want  of  a  boy  who  ranks  'fair'  in  co- 
operation? What  can  an  employer  afford  to  pay  a  girl  graded 
'poor'  in  courtesy,  when  his  success  in  business  depends  upon  a 
high  understanding  of  this  same  quality  ?  Who  wants  a  boy  marked 
'fair'  in  promptness  or  in  accuracy?  How  did  you  happen  to  get 
such  marks?     What  specific  things  must  be  done  for  improvement? 

"In  a  few  cases  a  poor  record  has  been  returned  by  an  employer 
marked:  'Can't  use  this  type  of  boy.'  When  this  happens,  every 
boy  in  school  seems  to  know  it  and  the  effect  is  excellent. 

'  Seattle  blanks  were  made  out  in  lOlS'and  the  department  was  closed  in  1916. 
Several  changes  should  be  made  were  they  to  be  used  in  1920. 


116  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

"Employers  have  been  uniformly  kind  about  sending  back  the 
lower  half  of  the  blank,  and  there  are  now  several  of  our  best  firms 
who  will  not  consider  the  application  of  boys  and  girls  under  18 
without  our  recommendation.  Nearly  every  day  pupils  come  to 
the  office,  often  those  who  have  been  out  of  school  a  year  or  more, 
asking  these  recommendations  for  employers. 

"Under  this  plan  twelve  pupils  whose  school  records  were  'poor' 
have  returned  to  school  to  better  their  standing.  One  young  boy 
who  brought  an  unusually  bad  report  was  astonished  to  find  how 
much  value  we  placed  upon  it.  He  very  readily  selected  his  own 
weak  points,  told  me  that  he  deserved  it  all  and  would  bring  me 
back  something  next  year  that  'would  make  me  sit  up  and  take 
notice  when  he  wanted  a  place.' 

"  I  have  used  these  character  blanks  freely  in  public  meetings, 
and  many  parents  have  asked  for  them  for  home  use  in  order  to  co- 
operate with  us  in  our  study. 

"This  phase  of  vocational  guidance  is  one  of  the  lines  mentioned 
before  in  which  success  is  due  to  contact  between  mind  and  mind ; 
its  methods  can  neither  be  explained  nor  taught,  but  it  is  the  back- 
bone of  the  whole  vocational  guidance  system.  If  counselors  can- 
not handle  effectively  this  side  of  the  work,  they  cannot  hope  to  be 
more  than  employment  managers." 

Mr.  Leavitt  has  developed  a  plan  for  Pittsburgh  which 
is  very  similar  to  the  Seattle  plan,  but  has  the  advantage 
of  being  much  more  inclusive  and  strictly  up  to  date. 
It  is  too  elaborate  and  comprises  too  many  forms  to  be 
included  in  this  manual,  but  a  full  set  of  forms  and  records 
indicating  his  methods  will  be  mailed  upon  request. 
Eventually  educational  administration  will  come  to 
realize  the  importance  of  some  such  system  of  evaluation 
and  will  insist  upon  it.  When  that  time  comes  results 
are  easily  foretold :  placement  offices  will  have  complete 
pictures  of  all  the  young  workers  who  are  to  come  into 
the  labor  market  at  given  periods  of  each  year  and  will 
be  constantly  looking  ahead  for  placement  opportunities ; 
employers,  anticipating  favorable  opportunities  for  exer- 
cising selective  ability  in  obtaining  junior  labor,  will  make 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE 


117 


advanced  orders,  especially  for  apprentices  and  trained 
workers;  pupils  will  realize  that  education  has  a  vital 
bearing  on  employment  and  that  the  schoolroom  is  the 
best  place  from  which  to  obtain  positions. 

Three,  out  of  the  four  classes  of  junior  workers  which  we 
desire  to  pool  at  their  source,  offer  much  the  same  type  of 

THE  BUSINESS  WAY 
THEORY 


Co-operation 


Bosiness  Contacts 


EDUCATION 


PLACEMENT 


OCCUPATION 


School  System 


Counsellora 


Vocational  AdvisoM 


From  Theoretical  Knowledge  to  Practical  Knowledge 
through 
Scientific  Placement 


occupational  problems,  afford  much  the  same  type  of  oppor- 
tunities for  service,  and  require  similar  methods  of  place- 
ment and  supervision.  The  expression,  part-time  workers, 
in  some  cities,  is  synonymous  with  continuation-school 
pvpils;  in  other  cities  it  includes  elementary  and  high 
school  pupils  who  attend  academic  or  vocational  courses 
part  time  and  are  employed  the  remainder  of  the  week. 
After-school,  Saturday,  and  vacation  workers  may  be 
classed  with  continuation-school  and  part-time  pupils 
from  the  point  of  view  of  difficulties  involved  in  place- 
ment, as  well  as  from  the  point  of  view  of  opportunities 
for  combined  educational  and  vocational  service.    We 


118  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

cannot  emphasize  too  strongly  that  this  group  of  semi- 
wage  earners,  semi-students  is  composed  of  thousands ' 
of  the  most  promising  youths  of  our  country  whose 
abilities  are,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  to  be  commercial- 
ized, capitalized,  and  conserved,  and  that  we  are  one  of  the 
national  agencies  which  has  been  designated  to  lead  in  this 
movement.  We  cannot  remind  ourselves  too  often  that 
this  is  the  only  junior  group  pooled  at  one  and  the  same 
time  both  educationally  and  occupationally  which  offers 
an  opportunity  to  test  the  interaction  of  two  vital  factors 
in  the  life  of  the  young  —  supervised  study  and  supervised 
work  ^  —  and  that  we  are  one  of  the  national  agencies 
appointed  to  test  these  interactions  and  make  the  results 
available  for  improving  the  material  and  method  of  education. 
Our  responsibility  is  tremendous,  our  opportunity  for  service 
unexcelled.  Even  the  most  casual  observer  of  employ- 
ment methods  will  readily  understand  that  there  are 
certain  problems  involved  in  the  placement  of  student 
wage  earners  which  are  not  involved  in  the  placement 
of  full-time  permanent  workers.  A  brief  discussion  of 
these  problems  precedes  discussion  of  the  universal  prob- 
lems involved  in  placement. 

On  the  occupational  side  we  find  several  rather  serious 
difficulties : 

(1)  There  are  comparatively  few  juvenile  occupations 
which  are  vocational  or  educative  in  character  per  se, 
and  up  to  date  there  has  been  no  effort  on  the  part  of 
educators  ^    to    make    these    apparently    non-educative 

1  Our  largest  cities  should  pool  as  high  as  30,000, 40,000,  or  50,000  of  these  student 
wage  earners  while  still  in  the  formative  period  of  life.  In  June,  1915,  there  were 
approximately  4000  pupils  in  the  Seattle  public  schools  who  were  employed  out  of 
hours.     ("  Newsboy  Service,  "  p.  ii.) 

*  Unsupervised  study  has  been  found  to  be  an  intellectual  handicap,  unsupervised 
play  a  moral  menace  —  why  should  we  assimie  any  uniformly  good  result  from 
unsupervised  work  ? 

'  The  Curtis  Publishing  Company  has  made  a  splendid  effort  to  make  its  news- 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT   OFFICE 


119 


PRIMARY 
SCHOOLS 


— 


GRADE 
SCHOOLS 


V 


Vocational 
, ,       Guidance 


HIGH  AND 

COxNTINUATION 

SCHOOLS 


Occupational 
1  Information 


Corporation  Schools 


Success 
Good  TralniDX  I 


.  Indicates  the  Course  of  a  Boy  or  Girl  thru  School  to  Industry 


Indicates  the  Course  of  Industrial  Information  flowing  back  to  Schoola 

Chart  showing  the  result  of  linking  education  and  industry. 


120  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

employments  of  educational  value  either  by  employment 
supervision  or  through  more  intelligent  distribution  of 
juvenile  workers.  Uniformly  we  have  branded  them 
"  blind  alley  "  and  have  gone  happily  on  our  way  in- 
creasing the  number  of  "  blind-alley  "  pupils.^ 

(2)  There  have  been  many  industrial  changes  in  recent 
years.  For  one  reason  or  another  the  number  of  em- 
ployers who  care  to  employ  boys  and  girls  under  16  is 
steadily  decreasing.  Apprenticeship  in  several  trades  is 
closed  to  those  under  18. 

(3)  Many  industries  are  so  organized  that  they  cannot 
use  split-time,  odd  hour,  or  less  than  full  week  workers. 
The  peak  load  in  a  desirable  occupation  may  come  at  the 
very  period  of  the  day  when  the  student  employee  must 
be  free  for  educational  demands ;    team-work  processes 

boy  service  of  real  educational  value,  but  it  has  received  very  little  ^.ssistance  from 
educational  systems.  Newsboy  service  is  a  typical  juvenile  employment  offering 
great  opportunities  for  combined  educational-vocational  service.  1357  Seattle 
schoolboys  engaged  in  newsboy  service  were  studied  in  1916  and  the  results  pre- 
sented from  the  educational,  social,  economic,  physical,  moral,  and  vocational  view- 
point.    ("  Newsboy  Service,"  World  Book  Co.,  1917.) 

Those  who  feel  that  the  average  employer  is  not  interested  in  the  influence  of 
juvenile  employments  upon  the  juvenile  employees  are  asked  to  read  "The  Wards 
of  Golf,"  an  address  by  Burridge  D.  Butler  at  the  annual  dinner  of  The  Winter 
Golf  Association  of  Advertising  Interests  at  Pinehurst,  N.  C,  Jan.  14,  1916.  Mr. 
Butler  tells  us  that  300,000  to  400,000  boys  in  this  country  were  caddying  regularly 
that  year.  His  brilliant  appeal  to  fellow  players  to  utilize  "one  of  the  greatest 
educational  opportunities  that  civilization  has  ever  offered,  because  caddie  char- 
acter is  made  on  the  links"  should  lead  us  all  to  ask  if  any  occupation  which  affords 
any  "freckled-face  future  man"  an  opportunity  to  receive  such  a  "man  message" 
from  any  man  can  be  legitimately  called. a  "blind  alley." 

I  "No  occupation  is  a  blmd  alley  for  some  boys,  if  some  boys  find  the  way  out,  is 
it  fair  to  call  the  alley  blind?  Would  it  not  be  more  logical  to  say  that  we  have 
some  boys  who  are  blind-alley  boys  ? 

"I  am  not  ready  to  admit,  radical  as  this  may  appear  to  some,  that  there  is  any 
such  thing  as  a  blind-alley  occupation.  There  is  always  a  future,  provided  there 
be  ability  to  see  it  and  perseverance  to  pursue  it.  The  highest  educational  service 
that  the  schools  can  render  the  boy  of  to-day  is  assistance  in  the  development  of 
the  character  qualities  which  will  show  him  how  to  find  the  light  in  any  occupational 
alley  which  he  may  enter  to-morrow.  This  is  one  of  the  prime  fvmctions  of  Voca- 
tional Guidance  Departments.  When  they  know  their  mission,  accept  it,  and 
fulfill  it,  we  shall  have  fewer  blind-alley  boys."     ("Newsboy  Service,"  p.  141.) 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  121 

cannot  always  provide  for  part-time  workers;  Saturday 
may  be  the  dullest  day  in  the  entire  week  in  the  industry 
most  helpful  to  students;  very  frequently  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  find  vacation  employment  for  any  kind  of 
high  school  pupils.  In  some  states  minimum  wage  rulings 
have  increased  the  difficulties  of  student  placement. 
Many  positions  which  used  to  be  open  for  after-school 
workers  were  sufficiently  remunerative  to  give  the  neces- 
sary student  aid  and  at  the  same  time  bring  a  commercial 
return  to  the  employer.  .  Wage  rulings  requiring  that  any 
fraction  of  a  day  must  be  paid  for  by  the  hour,  on  the 
basis  of  the  daily  wage,  exclude  boys  and  girls  who  could 
work  only  between  3  and  6  p.m.,  because  service  during 
these  hours  is  usually  less  valuable  than  during  the  early 
hours  of  the  day.  In  some  occupations  Saturday  work 
can  be  very  easily  secured.  Every  placement  agent 
should  have  definite  information  on  all  the  subjects 
mentioned. 

(4)  Sometimes  a  student's  financial  needs  clash  with 
his  vocational  needs.  An  occupation  may  afford  him  an 
excellent  vocational  opportunity,  but  monetary  considera- 
tions may  forbid  his  acceptance. 

(5)  Danger  of  divided  interest  causing  failure  in  both 
education  and  industry  is  ever  present. 

The  educational  system  occupies  a  strategic  position 
with  reference  to  placement  problems.  Student  wage 
earners  are  crossing  the  bridge  which  transforms  them 
from  closely  supervised  children  into  self-directing  adults. 
This  is  the  great  and  the  final  opportunity  for  educational 
guidance  —  practical  guidance  which  indicates  how  self- 
control  and  self-direction  are  essential  in  solving  the 
problems  of  life.  It  is  at  this  point  that  educational 
agencies  and  employment  agencies  can  cooperate  most 
effectively  in  aiding  the  young  to  recognize,  analyze,  and 


122  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

solve  their  problems.^  Such  service  cannot  be  rendered 
by  amateurs  —  only  those  who  know  life's  road  and  its 
turnings  should  venture  to  advise  pupils  who  stand  at 
the  cross-roads  of  life. 

Supervision  of  present  student  wage  earners  is  not  the 
only  employment  problem  for  educators. 

"We  live  in  the  end  and  in  the  beginning  of  an  age  —  the  forces 
of  destruction  and  the  forces  of  construction  are  traveling  side  by 
side.     The  old  education  is  dying,  the  new  is  still  unborn." 

We  live  in  the  end  of  an  age  in  which  juvenile  employ- 
ment has  been  an  industrial  asset  and  an  educational 
liability;  we  live  in  the  beginning  of  an  age  in  which 
juvenile  employment  is  fast  becoming  an  educational  asset 
and  an  industrial  liability.  In  the  old  age,  those  who 
desired  to  conserve  the  youth  of  our  country  worked 
strenuously  for  legislation  which  prohibited  the  young 
from  entering  industry.  They  have  done  their  work  well. 
Prohibitive  measures  have  about  reached  their  limit. 
They  are  now  turning  to  constructive  thinking  and  are 
beginning  to  realize  that  taking  boys  and  girls  out  of 
industry  is  not  the  final  solution  of  the  child  labor  problem. 
They  are  beginning  to  realize  that  too  long,  too  many 
boys  and  girls  have  been  legislated  out  of  industry  at  the 
expense  of  personal  development;  too  long,  too  many 
boys  and  girls  have  been  legislated  out  of  industry  — 
not  into  a  school  which  had  something  better  than  in- 
dustry to  offer,  but  on  to  the  streets  which  had  worse  than 
nothing  to  offer.^    They  are  beginning  to  realize  that  the 

1  The  first-hand  occupational  information  which  the  student  wage  earner  brings 
back  to  the  classroom  vitalizes  the  material  and  improves  the  method  of  education. 
It  should  be  freely,  but  critically  and  intelligently,  used  in  the  vocational  informa- 
tion courses  previously  mentioned. 

'  The  following  letter  indicates  the  problem.  It  appeals  to  the  United  States 
Employment  Service  for  a  solution  : 

"I  am  writing  you  for  advice  and  assistance.  I  am  the  mother  of  six  boys, 
three  were  in  Service  during  the  war,  one  yet  in  the  Navy.  Since  these  have 
returned,  as  most  soldiers,  they  left  this  rural  dull  country  life. 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  123 

educational  system  which,  by  its  methods  of  lesson  assign- 
ment, teaches  pupils  to  do  just  so  much  and  no  more  is 
vicious,  and  that  legislation  which  indicates  that  the 
general  public  prefers  its  youth  to  do  nothing  rather  than  to 
work,  is  even  more  vicious.^ 

In  the  old  age,  educators  assumed  that  juvenile  employ- 
ment was  a  legislative  problem ;  in  the  new  age,  they  are 
coming  to  see  that  it  is  an  educational  problem  —  that 
it  means  the  recognition  of  juvenile  employment  as  a 
legitimate  and  constructive  factor  in  education. 

Unfortunately  just  as  we  are  begirming  to  see  that 
there  is  a  constructive  side  to  juvenile  employment,  just 
as  we  are  beginning  to  realize  that  the  new  education 

"  Now  I  have  three  younger  boys.  Since  thia  law  preventing  child  labor  on 
public  work  only  one  boy  is  old  enough  to  work.  We  have  only  three  months 
school.  Now  what  are  we  to  do  with  our  boys?  They  are  not  aBle  to  have  teams 
or  farming  implements,  nor  even  rent  land.  Then,  too,[farming  will  not  begin  until 
the  first  of  the  year.  Now  tell  me  what  can  we  do  with  the  vast  number  of  idle 
boys?  First,  no  school,  next  no  work.  Please  consider  our  condition.  Any 
advice,  still  better,  any  help  you  may  give  would  do  much  to  relieve  us  just  now." 

Mr.  Leavitt  at  New  Orleans,  before  the  Child  Labor  Commission,  1914,  said  : 

"  I  am  convinced  that  the  influence  of  the  National  Child  Labor  Committee 
might  well  be  lent  to  reducing  not  only  the  suffering  of  children  in  factories  and 
mills  but  also  the  suffering  of  children  in  schools.  Both  ends  will  be  furthered, 
I  am  sure,  if  the  public  school  systems  can  be  induced  to  assume  this  new  function 
of  giving  vocational  information  and  training  and  of  exercising  employment  super- 
vision, during  two  years  at  least,  for  the  benefit  of  the  other  children." 

The  trend  of  the  discussion  in  the  recent  Child  Welfare  Conference  called  by 
the  Children's  Bureau  in  1919  indicates  that  social  workers  are  coming  to  under- 
stand that  work  is  of  educational  value.  Mr.  Claxton,  page  104,  calls  attention 
to  the  fact  that  work  has  an  educational  value  if  it  is  properly  directed  in  the  right 
measure  and  intelligently  done.  He  adds,  "I  think  we  shall  realize  that  the  whole 
matter  is  not  merely  one  of  prohibition,  nor  merely  one  of  negation,  but  one  of 
positive  construction  in  the  right  way."  Mr.  Lovejoy,  page  84,  recognizes  that 
"  it  is  difficult  to  confine  oneself  to  legislative  prohibitions  when  the  whole  trend 
of  child  labor  effort  and  education  work  in  this  country  is  in  the  direction  of  con- 
struction rather  than  prohibition." 

1  "  A  debilitating  by-product  of  measuring  out  of  uniform  lessons  is  the  estab- 
lishment, early  in  the  child's  plastic  mind,  that  the  thing  to  do  in  life  is  to  do  what 
is  measured  out  for  one  to  do  —  never  any  more  under  arty  circumstances:,  and  as 
much  less  as  possible  under  all  circumstances.  This  soul-withering  dogma  hammered 
by  the  class  system  into  the  growing  mind,  becomes  the  life  doctrine  which  is  largely 
accountable  for  prevailing  inefficiency  in  life  work."  ("Lockstep  Schooling  and  a 
Remedy.") 


124  JUNIOR  WAGE   EARNERS 

recognizes  every  industry  as  a  vocational  center,  industry 
declares  that  a  youth  under  16  years  of  age  is  a  liability 
and  is  not  wanted,  i.e.,  just  as  we  have  come  to  feel  that 
no  youth  is  an  educated  youth  unless  he  has  had  the 
benefit  of  supervised  study,  supervised  work,  and  super- 
vised play,  employers  have  closed  our  best  vocational 
avenues  and  Verhoten  boards  stare  us  in  the  face.  Is 
there  a  possibility  that  in  the  new  age  we  shall  come  to 
believe  that  all  boys  and  girls  over  14  years  of  age  are 
entitled  to  work  experience  as  a  legitimate  part  of  the  new 
education?  Is  there  a  possibility  that  we  shall  do  away 
with  certain  make-believe  types  of  vocational  training 
and  decide  that  the  place  to  learn  industrial  processes  is 
in  industry  —  that  the  corporation  school  will  supersede 
the  public  vocational  school?  Is  there  a  possibility  that 
we  shall  cease  to  look  upon  the  employment  of  the  young  as 
a  commercial  proposition  and,  knowing  how  much  work 
and  what  kind  of  work  makes  a  definite  contribution  to 
the  education  of  each,  we  shall  subsidize  industries  which 
are  willing  to  assume  responsibility  for  offering  work 
experience  under  educational  supervision  ?  Possibly  in  the 
new  age  we  shall  legislate  work  experience  as  a  factor  in 
the  new  education  and  shall  require  public  education  to 
make  good  any  financial  loss  suffered  by  cooperating 
industries.  Such  suggestions  may  seem  revolutionary 
but  they  are  by  no  means  impossible  of  realization.  We 
might  find  them  more  practical  and  possibly  less  expensive 
than  the  present  system. 

Educators,  at  present,  know  little  about  the  influence 
of  work  on  boys  and  girls.  We  have  done  considerable 
guessing  along  these  lines  and  as  a  result  there  is  a  belief 
that  the  influence  of  work  is  had.  Until  we  have  facts 
from  which  to  draw  legitimate  conclusions  the  only  con- 
clusion at  which  we  may  safely  jump  is  that  the  effects  of 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  125 

work  are  rarely  negative  —  they  are  positive  for  good 
or  for  evil ;  to  utilize  the  one  and  counteract  the  other  is 
both  the  duty  and  the  privilege  of  education.^ 

Methods  employed  in  the  placement  of  student  wage 
earners  do  not  differ  materially  from  general  methods 
appHcable  to  all  juniors.  Older  women  who  can  easily 
secure  the  confidence  of  both  boys  and  girls  make  the  best 
counselors.^  Counselors  must  understand  the  vices  and 
virtues  of  young  wage  earners,  must  be  specialists  in  the 
types  of  industry  open  to  student  employees,  and  know 
how  to  cooperate  with  education.  Pupils  seeking  employ- 
ment for  the  first  time  are  entitled  to]  the  most  careful 
consideration  and  to  all  the  assistance  possible  in  solving 
their  perplexities  and  tiding  them  over  the  discourage- 
ments and  disappointments  of  the  first  few  days.  Em- 
ployers who  patronize  public  agencies  should  be  assured 
that  all  legal  requirements  are  being  complied  with  when 
applicants  are  referred  and  that  age  certificates,  labor 
permits,  health  certificates,  etc.  will  be  promptly  forwarded 
if  the  placement  is  made. 

Employment  supervision  for  the  student  group  gives 
the  best  possible  facilities  for  observing  the  interaction  of 
education  and  employment. 

'  Mrs.  WooUey's  studies  on  the  influence  of  work  are  very  valuable  for  students 
of  employment  problems.  The  effects  of  employment  on  children  have  been 
studied  in  considerable  detail  by  the  Baltimore  Board  which  issues  Labor  Permits. 

The  Physical  Welfare  of  Employed  Children  is  discussed  in  the  Child  Labor 
Bulletin,  February,  1918,  pp.  219-229  (Florence  L  Taylor).  There  are  many  other 
sources  of  information  on  health  hazards  in  industry. 

2  Boys  between  14  and  IC  are  as  well  placed  by  women  as  by  men.  Older  boys 
are  frequently  better  placed  by  men.  We  do  not,  however,  advocate  the  separation 
of  boys  and  girls  for  placement.  Clerical  positions  for  both  sexes  may  be  well 
handled  by  women;  some  lines  of  factory  work  for  women  are  better  handled  by 
men,  etc.     An  ideal  oflBce  will  employ  both  men  and  women. 


126  JUNIOR  WAGE   EARNERS 

2.    POOLING   THE   ENTIRE   JUNIOR   LABOR   SUPPLY   AND 
DEMAND 

!  Pooling  and  distributing  the  junior  labor  supply  as  it 
comes  from  the  schools  is  fundamental  to  success.  It 
strikes  at  the  heart  of  the  problem  of  employment  and 
unemployment.  Five  years  hence,  if  this  phase  of  junior 
placement  has  been  mastered  on  a  scientific  basis,  pre- 
ventive vocational  guidance  will  have  been  accepted 
as  a  school  function ;  corrective  guidance  as  a  function 
of  the  employment  service.  Until  education  does  assume 
its  share  of  responsibility  for  vocational  guidance  the 
employment  service  must  be  prepared  to  offer  both  pre- 
ventive and  corrective  guidance  as  well  as  to  perform  the 
more  limited  functions  usually  included  in  the  distribution 
of  labor. 

A.  Pooling  the  junior  labor  supply.  The  bulk  of  the 
junior  labor  supply,  youth  between  16  and  21,  wdll  natu- 
rally be  pooled  in  a  downtown  central  office.  It  will 
comprise  (1)  juveniles  14  and  15  years  of  age  who  for  one 
reason  or  another  are  not  placed  through  the  school  office ; 
(2)  transfers  from  other  cities ;  (3)  full  time  permanent 
workers  directly  from  vocational  or  other  schools;  and 
(4)  replacements. 

(1)  and  (2)  Juvenile  workers  and  transfers.  Juvenile 
workers  have  already  been  discussed  at  some  length. 
One  of  the  most  important  functions  of  a  national  system 
of  junior  labor  exchanges  should  be  the  perfection  of  a 
transfer  system  whereby  boys  and  girls  may  be  transferred 
from  one  public  employment  exchange  to  another  accom- 
panied by  their  school  and  employment  record  or  personnel 
sheet.  Such  a  national  inter-city  school  transfer  system 
has  been  an  educational  need  for  years  and  is  practiced 
to  some  extent  without  any  national  system.     At  the  last 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  127 

annual  convention  of  the  National  League  of  Compulsory 
Education  Officials,  December,  1919,  the  necessity  of  an 
inter-city  transfer  system  was  favorably  discussed.  All 
of  these  functions  are  more  or  less  intimately  connected 
and  all  could  be  conducted  with  greater  efficiency  were 
they  operating  under  a  uniform  system.  Young  wage 
earners,  who  may  have  entered  upon  an  occupational 
career  under  favorable  auspices  in  their  home  town,  change 
their  residence,  break  old  ties,  and  find  no  agency  at  hand 
to  assist  them  in  forming  new  employment  ties  of  equal 
value.  They  drift  downward.  It  is  not  uncommon  for 
business  houses,  operating  on  a  national  basis,  to  maintain 
a  regular  transfer  system  whereby  they  may  retain  in  then- 
service  valuable  and  trained  employees  and  use  their 
entire  working  force  to  the  best  iiational  advantage.  If 
business  houses  find  a  national  transfer  system  desirable 
why  is  it  not  legitimate  to  assume  that  it  would  be  desirable 
in  distributing  our  entire  labor  supply?  The  advantages 
seem  obvious,  but  the  administrative  details  have  never 
been  worked  out.  One  thing  is  certain  —  we  cannot  pool 
the  entire  labor  demand  unless  we  can  also  pool  the  entire 
supply  and,  after  it  is  pooled,  we  cannot  distribute  it 
with  the  best  ultimate  results  unless  we  have  all  possible 
information  regarding  it.  This  means  inter-city  transfers 
accompanied  by  personnel  history  and  job  specifications.^ 
(3)  Permanent  workers  directly  from  schools.  A  fairly 
careful  survey  of  the  character  and  amount  of  placement 
carried  on  by  high  schools  leads  us  to  the  general  conclu- 
sion that  the  average  high  school  does  not  do  sufficient 
placement  work  either  to  do  it  well  or  to  warrant  the 
expense  of  continuance.     Many  of  the  purely  vocational 

'  Note  the  vicious  system  mentioned  in  the  Boston  reports  whereby  employ- 
ment registration  is  refused  to  out  of  town  boys  and  girls  because  the  bureau  knows 
nothing  about  their  qualifications. 


128  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

high  schools  do  considerable  placement  work  and  do  it 
exceedingly  well.  Of  course,  it  is  done  sporadically 
with  two  or  three  definite  periods  when  a  considerable 
supply  is  known  to  be  pooled  and  the  demand  is  therefore 
apt  to  be  pooled  simultaneously.  Whenever  facts  indi- 
cate that  it  is  desirable  to  permit  individual  schools  to 
maintain  local  branch  offices  there  is  no  reason  why  this 
should  not  be  done,  either  with  or  without  financial 
assistance  from  the  federal  government.  It  is  useless  to 
attempt  to  indicate  the  various  methods  whereby  such 
branch  offices  are  installed,  financed,  and  operated  because 
local  conditions,  volume  of  work,  character  of  the  employ- 
ment ability  at  command,  etc.,  are  all  controlling  factors. 
The  danger  in  the  branch  office  is  not  that  it  will  not 
place  its  pupils,  but  that  it  will  not  have  the  full  benefit 
of  the  clearing  house  and  hence  will  neither  place  pupils 
to  the  best  advantage  nor  serve  its  employers  on  the 
basis  of  the  best  possible  candidate  for  every  position. 
Our  aim  is  —  the  best  pupil  for  each  positign.  In  order 
to  attain  this  aim,  each  pupil,  irrespective  of  which  school 
he  is  in,  should  have  an  opportunity  to  consider  all  the 
positions  which  demand  his  type  of  abilities.  Statistics 
prove  that  the  great  majority  of  pupils  prefer  to  get  their 
positions  in  the  open  market  rather  than  through  the 
meager  facilities  of  the  average  school  placement  office. 

(4)  Replacement.  Under  present  conditions,  the  re- 
placement group  will  probably  make  application  without 
recommendation  or  records  of  any  kind  and  there  will  be 
no  school-employment  cumulative  record  in  our  files  for 
our  assistance.  We  shall  have  to  classify  largely  accord- 
ing to  the  information  secured  in  our  interviews  and  it 
may  take  several  interviews  before  we  feel  competent 
to  make  a  referral.  The  replacement  group  will  comprise 
discontented    workers    of    all    kinds.     Some    who    have 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  129 

decidedly  superior  abilities  will  be  occupying  positions 
which  afford  no  legitimate  use  for  real  ability,  hence 
another  outlet  for  its  use,  sometimes  anti-social,  may  be 
found  ;  some  will  be  occupational  misfits ;  some  confirmed 
drifters,  etc.  To  pool,  analyze,  classify,  and  distribute 
this  heterogeneous  mass  of  human  abilities  is  no  small 
task.  The  pooling  phase  of  the  problem  may  be  initiated 
by  publicity,  always  using  the  utmost  of  care  not  to  adver- 
tise anything  upon  which  we  cannot  make  good.^  After 
the  office  is  once  under  way  the  best  method  of  attracting 
customers  is  efficient  service,  —  satisfied  customers  who 
will  return  and  bring  friends  with  them. 

B.  Pooling  the  junior  labor  demand.  Pooling  em- 
ployers' demands  is  the  second  phase  of  the  collective 
side  of  the  employment  function.  Just  as  we  pool, 
analyze,  classify,  and  distribute  the  labor  supply,  so  we 
pool,  analyze,  classify,  and  distribute  the  labor  demand. 
Just  as  we  classify  workers  as  high,  average,  or  low,  so  do 
we  classify  positions.  Just  as  we  analyze  each  individual 
to  determine  how  well  he  fits  the  position,  so  we  analyze 
each  position  to  determine  how  well  it  fits  the  individual. 
Just  as  it  is  of  vital  importance  to  be  able  to  distinguish 
between  a  good  and  a  poor  worker,  so  is  it  of  equally  vital 
importance  to  be  able  to  distinguish  between  a  good  and  a 
poor  position.  A  successful  employment  agency  must 
learn  to  test  both  workers  and  employers  very  carefully. 
A  successful  employment  agency  must  be  able  to  teach 
employers  how  to  select  workers  carefully,  and  workers  how 
to  select  employers  carefully.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best 
methods  of  contributing  to  reduction  in  labor  turnover. 

'  Some  very  clever  and  very  effective  circularization  has  been  done  by  our  local 
offices.  Samples  may  be  secured  from  the  national  office  on  request.  If  the 
government  frank  is  used  in  their  distribution  sample  copies  must  be  submitted 
to  the  national  office  for  approval  before  publication  and  distribution.  The  na- 
tional office  is  prepared  to  advise  its  local  offices  in  the  preparation  of  such  material. 
K 


130  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

Employers'  initial  orders  may  be  secured  by  means  of 
publicity  but  in  the  final  analysis  they,  too,  must  be 
secured  by  means  of  efficient  service  —  satisfied  customers. 
Pittsburgh  has  been  able  to  secure  an  agreement  from  a 
large  number  of  its  best  business  houses  whereby  the 
Junior  Employment  Service  is  to  be  given  precedence 
over  all  other  sources  of  labor  supply.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan  until  the  Service  has  time  to  establish  itself 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  be  recognized  as  the  one 
best  source  of  junior  supply,  without  agreements  or  con- 
tracts. Newspaper  advertising  is  a  good  source  of  in- 
formation regarding  opportunities  for  pooling,  or  neg- 
lected opportunities  to  pool,  both  the  supply  and  the 
demand.  Letters  to  employers  indicating  the  type  of 
workers  available  at  any  given  time,  or  the  type  which  will 
be  available  at  the  close  of  the  school,  are  very  helpful 
in  securing  advance  orders.  One  pertinent  fact  must 
never  be  forgotten  —  distribution  cannot  possibly  be  satis- 
factory to  both  parties  unless  the  proper  balance  be  maintained 
between  pooled  supply  and  pooled  demand  —  not  only 
pooled  supply  and  demand  in  toto,  but  with  reference  to 
specific  abilities  and  industries.  Although  it  is  not 
always  an  easy  matter  this  apparently  imcontroUable 
feature  of  employment  can  be  controlled  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  is  usually  admitted  if  the  central  clearing 
house  be  adequately  and  intelligently  manned.  The 
desired  relation  between  supply  and  demand  indicates 
the  type  of  publicity  advisable,  the  amount  and  character 
of  solicitation,  etc. 

3.    DISTRIBUTING  THE  JUNIOR  LABOR  SUPPLY  AND  DEMAND 

Abihty  to  pool  the  labor  supply  and  demand  is  pre- 
requisite to  success  on  the  collective  side  of  the  employ- 
ment problem.     Ability  to  distribute  both  satisfactorily 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  131 

is  a  second  and  equally  important  phase  of  the  same  prob- 
lem. Placement  is  the  distributive  side  of  the  employment 
function.  It  is  also  the  Alpha  and  the  Omega  of  Vocational 
Guidance. 

We  have  already  imphed  that  methods  of  placement 
vary  according  to  the  type  of  applicant  and  to  individual 
abihties  and  needs  within  the  type  —  it  is  not  enough  to 
know  junior  workers,  we  must  also  know  each  individual 
junior  worker.  The  same,  of  course,  is  true  of  business 
demands.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  the  general  demands 
of  mercantile  houses  and  business  offices,  we  must  also 
know  the  individual  pecuharities  and  requirements  of 
each  specific  mercantile  establishment.  Anything,  there- 
fore, which  may  be  offered  in  this  publication  on  processes 
and  methods  of  distribution  must  be  regarded  as  tentative 
and  subject  to  any  modifications  which  may  be  necessary 
to  adapt  it  to  local  demands. 

The  processes  of  distribution  and  suggestions  for  accom- 
plishing them  are  as  follows : 

A.  The  interview  —  with  employer  and  applicant. 

B.  The  referral. 

C.  Placement. 

D.  Employment  supervision. 

A.  The  Interview.  (1)  With  the  employer.  The  inter- 
view is  the  crucial  point  with  reference  to  both  employer 
and  applicant.  Ability  to  secure  permanent  customers 
depends  upon  ability  shown  in  conducting  interviews, 
coupled  with  the  grasp  of  employment  problems  revealed 
and  exercised  therein.  Possibly  circulars  have  been  sent 
out  announcing  the  opening  of  a  junior  office  and  soliciting 
patronage.  Responses  begin  to  come  in  by  letter,  by 
phone,  or  by  person.  The  method  of  initial  contact  is 
not  nearly  so  important  as  is  seizing  the  first  opportunity 
to  visit  every  establishment  and  size  up  its  personality. 


132  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

If  a  letter  be  the  method,  an  employment  official  may 
indicate  its  receipt  and  his  appreciation  by  a  personal  call 
during  which  he  accumulates  much  or  little  inside  in- 
formation ^  but  during  which  he  always  creates  a  favorable 
impression  of  his  occupation  and  of  himself  as  its  public 
representative.  Sometimes  it  is  well  to  make  appoint- 
ments for  such  interviews  by  telephone  or  by  letter. 
It  was  my  custom  at  one  time  to  reply  to  letters  promising 

cooperation,  stating  that  I  would  call  on  at  

o'clock   unless   I   received    a   message,    telephone   , 

that  some  other  day  and  hour  would  be  more  convenient. 
If  initial  response  to  our  circular  comes  by  telephone  it 
is  very  easy  to  ask  if  we  may  not  have  the  pleasure  of 
calling  personally  so  that  we  can  understand  as  com- 
pletely as  possible  his  needs  and  the  type  of  personnel 
which  best  pleases  him.  Any  employer  who  seeks  assist- 
ance from  an  employment  office  will  be  pleased'  and 
flattered  by  personal  attention  to  his  needs ;  he  is  very  apt 
to  rate  our  efficiency  as  public  servants  by  the  abilities 
shown  in  understanding  his  problem  and  helping  him  to 
solve  it.  If  employers  call  at  the  office  to  place  their 
orders,  the  personality  and  the  courtesy  of  the  reception 
room  attendant  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  room 
will  be  an  exceptional  opportunity  for  expert  advertising. 
Most  of  the  callers  in  a  junior  office  are  boys  and  girls, 
hence,  whenever  mature  men  or  women  enter  the  reception 
room  their  very  presence  should  be  taken  as  prima  facie 
evidence  that  they  have  come  on  important  business  of 
some  kind  and  should  receive  immediate  attention.  The 
office  attendant  who  is  prompt  to  note  the  entrance  of 

>  Great  tact  and  Judgment  is  necessary  in  seeking  information  from  business 
houses.  No  one  person  can  tell  another  how  to  conduct  such  an  interview  and 
how  much  or  how  little  information  to  attempt.  Sooner  or  later  a  good  solicitor 
will  get  what  he  wants  —  sometimes  during  the  first  call,  sometimes  during  the 
tenth.  -     •     -  ' 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  133 

such  visitors  and  rising,  greets  them  with  an  inquiry  as 
to  what  service  can  be  rendered,  creates  a  very  favorable 
impression  and  advertises  the  employment  service  to 
good  advantage.  The  same  is  true  with  reference  to 
women  callers  in  offices  registering  only  men  and  manned 
by  men,  or  with  reference  to  men  callers  where  women 
are  in  charge  registering  women.  A  stray  member 
of  the  opposite  sex  feels  at  ease  immediately,  if  his 
or  her  presence  be  observed  and  attention  be  given. 
Employment  managers  are  usually  very  busy  men 
and  should  be  served  as  soon  after  announcement  as  is 
possible. 

The  personal  interview  is  the  opportunity  to  study  the 
personality  which  we  are  trying  to  win  for  a  permanent 
customer  and  which,  as  an  individual  type,  we  have  a 
right  to  assume  is  acceptable  to  the  house  which  it  repre- 
sents. No  matter  by  what  method  an  interview  is  con- 
ducted it  is  very  important  to  secure  all  the  information 
at  the  time.  Later  calls  to  fill  in  facts  which  we  knew 
were  necessary  and  should  have  known  enough  to  secure 
do  not  indicate  efficiency  and  are  more  or  less  of  an 
annoyance  to  business  men.  It  is  not  always  wise  to 
insist  on  knowing  the  salary  to  be  offered  —  sometimes 
it  depends  very  largely  upon  the  type  of  applicant  re- 
ferred and  men  do  not  care  to  be  quoted  in  advance. 
Some  employment  officials  always  include  wage  or  salary 
as  a  question  and  feel  that  it  should  receive  a  definite 
reply  if  the  employer  is  dealing  in  good  faith.  I  do  not 
ask  this  question  myself  and  believe  that  I  secure  the 
confidence  of  employers  more  readily  and  more  uni- 
versally by  omitting  it;  however,  I  always  have  a  very 
definite  idea  of  what  the  position  will  probably  be  worth 
before  I  close  the  interview.  Care  in  making  inquiries 
which  belong  to  factory  inspection  rather  than  to  job 


134  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

analysis  should  be  exercised.  Sometimes  we  will  be  told 
of,  or  be  shown,  working  conditions  which  are  far  from 
ideal.  Let  us  remember  that  the  man  who  gives  us  the 
information  is  doing  so  of  his  own  volition  and  that  all 
establishments  grow  old  and  cease  to  be  entirely  satis- 
factory long  before  we  would  be  warranted  in  suggesting 
or  expecting  their  demolition,  and  let  us  not  express 
horror  or  even  surprise.  Some  of  our  antiquated  school 
buildings  which  the  public  builds  and  maintains  are  just 
as  bad  or  worse  than  the  business  houses  which  the  same 
public  is  so  eager  to  condemn.  Even  if  a  given  industry 
be  not  the  most  desirable,  we  should  remember  that  we 
are  trying  to  become  a  monopoly  —  trying  to  pool  the  en- 
tire labor  demand,  and  that  if  society  recognizes  any  in- 
dustry as  a  legitimate  business  we  want  its  trade.  This, 
however,  does  not  mean  that  in  meeting  industry's  needs 
we  should  sacrifice  our  boys  and  girls  mentally,  morally, 
or  physically.  If  there  be  a  good  reason  —  based  on 
fact,  not  on  sentiment  —  why  we  should  not,  or  cannot, 
send  any  industry  the  junior  help  it  seeks,  we  should  state 
it  frankly  and  try  to  fill  the  order  in  some  other  way. 
Sometimes  an  older  woman,  or  a  boy,  can  be  substituted 
for  a  girl ;  sometimes  an  older  woman  or  an  older  man 
for  a  young  boy,  etc.  A  good  junior  employment  office 
will  not  he  extensively  used  by  employers  whose  business 
standards  are  recognized  to  be  below  those  accepted  by  the 
community  in  which  they  live.  The  influence  of  an  efficient 
junior  service  is  about  as  follows :  (a)  The  best  business 
houses  are  glad  to  cooperate  and  many  will  agree  to  secure 
junior  employees  from  no  other  source,  provided  their 
orders  can  be  promptly  filled,  (b)  the  cream  of  the  ap- 
plicants are  sent  to  such  houses,  (c)  steady  progress  in 
pooling  all  the  supply  and  the  best  of  the  demand  follows, 
(d)  inferior  industries  find  it  difficult  to  secure  satisfactory 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  135 

employees  because  a  selective  agency  which  pools  the 
better  grades  of  both  is  bringing  them  together,  (e)  un- 
desirable industries  eliminate  objectionable  features  and 
attempt  to  enter  "  the  pool."  I  have  had  considerable 
personal  experience  in  dealing  with  employers  and  I  have 
found  it  necessary  neither  to  blacklist  industries  nor  to 
place  boys  and  girls  in  unsatisfactory  positions.  The 
type  of  employer  to  whom  I  am  unwilling  to  refer  juniors 
does  not  care  to  deal  with  me.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have 
frequently  added  new  patrons  who  have  explained  that 
their  reason  for  tardy  cooperation  was  due  to  desire  to 
reach  a  higher  standard  before  they  asked  for  our  endorse- 
ment. A  diplomatic  junior  superintendent  who  is  strictly 
on  his  job  can  eliminate  much  that  is  undesirable  in  in- 
dustry without  bringing  criticism  of  any  kind  on  any 
industry  or  employer ;  without  bringing  any  criticism 
upon  himself ;  and  without  usurping  the  functions  of  any 
other  public  service.  An  office  can  do  its  own  job  so  well 
that  business  houses  will  be  anxious  to  seek  its  advice  and 
secure  its  service. 

(2)  With  the  applicant.  The  interview  with  the  ap- 
plicant is  the  great  opportunity  to  analyze,  or  to  complete 
the  analysis,  of  his  mental,  moral,  physical,  and  vocational 
needs  and  abilities.  Data  secured  from  his  personnel 
sheet,  combined  with  data  obtained  from  the  interview 
and  from  tests,  furnish  the  necessary  material.  The 
skill  of  the  interviewer  will  be  indicated  in  many  ways, 
such  as  the  method  of  approach,  the  amount  and  type  of 
information  secured,  the  length  of  the  interview,  the  dis- 
covery of  latent  talent,  the  use  made  of  the  opportunity 
for  service  of  any  kind,  etc. 

If  the  applicant  be  very  young,  if  his  educational  status 
be  low,  and  if  he  be  seeking  employment  for  the  first  time, 
there  is  considerable  danger  that  the  counselor  may  ap- 


136  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

proach  his  problem  from  the  "  back  to  school  "  point  of 
view,  thereby  eliminating  him  from  the  benefit  of  the 
employment  service  as  well  as  from  the  benefit  of  school. 
The  pupil  has  left  school.  Let  us  put  ourselves  in  his 
place.  He  has  come  to  the  employment  office  —  not  to 
be  advised  to  go  back  to  school  —  he  has  already  had 
plenty  of  such  advice  —  but  to  get  a  job.  Possibly  the 
interview  may  indicate  that  it  is  best  for  him  to  return 
to  school.  Possibly  he  may  go  back,  but  he  will  go  back 
in  a  much  more  receptive  attitude  if  he  goes  back  as  a 
result  of  his  own  conclusions  based  on  facts  brought  out 
by  a  skillful  interviewer  rather  than  as  a  result  of  con- 
clusions jumped  at  by  the  counseler  and  forced  upon  him. 
At  the  present  time  employment  offices  are  receiving 
very  little  help  from  teachers  in  their  efforts  to  pool  14- 
and  15-year-old  workers.  If  the  pupils  are  to  be  be- 
lieved, they  are  unwilling  to  inform  teachers  when  they 
anticipate  leaving  lest  they  be  overurged  to  continue. 
It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  a  second  agency  approaching 
their  interests  from  the  same  viewpoint  will  be  any  more 
successful  in  winning  their  confidence.^  It  seems  wiser 
to  assume  that  the  applicant  knew  what  he  wanted  when 
he  came  to  the  office.  If  after  events  prove  that  the 
counselor  had  something  to  offer  which  was  of  more  value, 
good  salesmanship  on  her  part  will  probably  bring  him 
to  see  it.  A  good  placement  office  will  have  an  opportunity 
to  secure  many  part-time  positions  and  thereby  help  to 
retain  in  school  many  pupils  who  without  its  assistance 
would  be  forced  to  leave.  Pittsburgh  statistics  show  that 
out  of  180  pupils  seeking  work  certificates  for  full  time, 

1  The  danger  of  overurging  pupils  to  remain  in  school  is  a  peculiarly  difficult 
subject  for  intelligent  discussion  because  many  well-intentioned  teachers  are 
obsessed  with  the  idea  that  great  benefits  are  derived  by  prolongation  of  the  school 
period,  irrespective  of  what  the  school  may  have  to  offer  or  of  the  manner  in  which 
a  pupil  may  spend  his  time  during  the  period  of  prolongation. 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  137 

90  were  offered  and  accepted  half-time  employment. 
Quite  a  number  of  the  90  are  being  lost  from  the  part- 
time  schools  but  about  one  third  of  the  loss  has  gone 
back  to  full-time  education.  If  the  teacher,  the  certifica- 
tion office,  and  the  continuation  school  are  functioning 
cooperatively  in  their  educational  undertaking,  guidance 
and  placement  departments  will  not  draw  pupils  out  of 
school,  but  will  help  to  retain  them  in  school.^  If  inter- 
views are  so  conducted  that  the  school  point  of  view  is 
uppermost,  that  the  counselor's  attitude  savors  of  phi- 
lanthropy rather  than  of  business,  that  what  she  wants 
rather  than  what  the  applicant  wants  is  emphasized,  we 
shall  not  make  rapid  progress  in  pooling  the  junior  labor 
supply,  nor  shall  we  make  many  permanent  customers. 
Whenever  paternalistic  methods  result  in  forcing  our  own 
opinions  upon  unsold  applicants,  discontent  and  labor 
turnover  are  apt  to  increase  rather  than  to  diminish. 

"  Seating  "  is  an  important  item  in  conducting  a  suc- 
cessful interview.  Opportunity  to  study  the  applicant 
is  the  main  thing.  Applicants  often  study  interviewers 
very  carefully  and  the  effect  of  everything  told  is  noted. 
The  question  as  to  how  much  it  is  wise  or  necessary  to 
tell  is  always  uppermost.  An  untrained  worker,  or  one 
deficient  in  psychological  insight,  is  always  in  danger 
of  allowing  the  interviewed  to  become  the  interviewer. 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
filling  out  the  application  blank  should  be  regarded  as  a 

1  Dr.  Meeker,  Commissioner  of  Labor  Statistics,  in  a  recent  address  classified 
"unemployment"  among  industrial  accidents.  If  we  accept  his  statement,  then 
what  form  of  compensation  should  society  offer  junior  unemployed?  UNEM- 
PLOYMENT SCHOOLS,  and  make  them  compulscrry.  The  Denver  Opportunity 
School  is  not  compulsory  and  it  is  not  confined  to  juniors,  but  it  is  an  excellent 
example  of  how  unemployment  compensation  might  operate.  Students  of  this 
subject  .should  be  informed  on  the  laboratory  for  unemployed  operated  in  New 
York  during  1915  and  1016.  Report  of  the  Mayor's  Committee  on  Unemploy- 
ment, New  York  City,  1910. 


138  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

legitimate  part  of  the  technical  interview  or  as  a  mere 
mechanical  process  to  be  performed  by  a  clerical  assistant 
or  by  the  appHcant  himself.  Economy  of  time  for  the 
counselor  is  the  only  apparent  advantage  in  delegating 
this  function.  Much  valuable  information  can  be  secured 
informally  and  incidentally  while  tabulating  what,  at 
first  sight,  appear  to  be  purely  mechanical  details. 

The  length  of  the  interview  is  another  problem  which 
troubles  some  counselors.  The  length  of  the  necessary 
interview  depends  entirely  upon  the  problems  involved 
in  placement.  An  hour  is  often  insufficient  for  the  best 
service;  sometime  five  minutes  answers  every  purpose. 
An  average  of  fifteen  minutes  to  an  applicant  is  a  good 
time  record,  provided  efficiency  in  other  more  essential 
elements  be  included.  Ability  to  win  the  confidence  of 
junior  applicants  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  inability 
to  close  the  interview  without  affront  when  the  counselor 
feels  that  all  possible  service  has  been  rendered  and  all 
necessary  information  secured.  This  is  an  even  greater 
problem  in  adult  offices.  The  best  methods  for  dismissing 
callers  who  overstay  is  an  unsolved  problem  in  many  of 
our  large  business  houses.  There  are  a  few  real  artists 
in  this  line.  Rising  as  the  introduction  card  is  presented 
is  usually  effective,  but  if  the  applicant  persists,  an  in- 
vitation to  return  when  others  are  not  waiting  may  be 
given.  Occasionally  young  wage  earners  seek  vocational 
interviews  merely  to  be  assured  of  a  sympathetic  listener. 
The  counselor  cannot  turn  these  callers  away,  neither 
can  she  permit  them  to  monopolize  her  time. 

A  spirit  of  restlessness  is  quite  prevalent  among  young 
wage  earners  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for  those  who  have 
real  or  imaginary  reasons  for  discontent  to  make  applica- 
tion for  a  new  position  while  retaining  the  old.  Their 
experience  with  the  business  world  is  very  limited.    The 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  139 

disadvantages  of  their  own  work  are  known  and  seem  to 
them  greater  than  those  which  would  be  found  in  other 
lines.  Occasionally  one  finds  a  public  employment  ofiice 
which  refuses  to  register  such  appUcants.  This  practice, 
if  known,  results  in  employed  appHcants  concealing  the 
fact  of  employment,  in  counselors  making  an  effort  to 
secure  a  position  and  in  labor  turnover  which  is  often 
unnecessary  and  very  unwise.  One  of  the  main  objects 
of  an  employment  ofl&ce  is  increase  in  occupational  and 
social  stabiUty,  hence,  counselors  should  urge  young  wage 
earners  to  consult  them  prior  to  determining  upon  a 
change,  should  be  prepared  to  analyze  present  and  pro- 
spective positions  and  assist  appUcants  to  decide  whether 
the  advantages  in  changing  are  as  great  as  may  appear. 
It  requires  considerable  ability  to  weigh  the  possibihties 
of  positions  and  decide  when  it  is  best  to  change.  Re- 
fusal to  register  employed  juniors  is  bound  to  increase 
labor  turnover. 

After  analysis  from  the  card  has  been  completed,  after 
it  has  been  supplemented  by  observation  and  conversation, 
we  still  have  tests  of  various  types  which  are  being  used 
with  more  or  less  success  as  guides  in  the  selection  of 
employees,  and  promise  to  become  an  increasingly  im- 
portant factor  in  reducing  labor  turnover.  Properly 
used  they  should  assist  a  labor-distributing  agency  in 
protecting  its  registrants  from  needlessly  applying  for 
positions  for  which  they  cannot  qualify  and  employers 
from  needlessly  trying  out  and  discharging  incompe- 
tents. 

Physical  Tests  are  very  essential  if  we  would  protect 
juniors  from  entering  occupations  which  tend  to  stunt 
them  physically  and,  in  later  life,  make  them  unem- 
ployables  in  the  adult  labor  market.  Physical  tests  for 
school  children  are  increasing  in  favor,  health  certificates 


140  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

are  prerequisite  to  employment  certification  in  some 
states,  many  business  houses  require  physical  examination 
prior  to  employment  and  periodical  examinations  after 
employees  have  been  accepted.^ 

Fatigue  elimination,  which  is  closely  related  to  indus- 
trial health,  is  being  studied  scientifically  by  Major  Frank 
B.  Gilbreth  and  his  wife  Lilhan  M.  Gilbreth,  who  are 
pioneers  in  the  work  and  are  adding  definite  information 
to  our  knowledge  of  fatigue,  its  causes,  effects,  and 
prospects  of  elimination  .^ 

Psychological  Tests  are  frequently  assumed  to  be  synony- 
mous with  general  intelligence  tests  —  tests  which  elim- 
inate mental  defectives  and  determine  native  ability. 
A  more  inclusive  use  of  the  term  permits  the  psychological 
test  to  comprise  the  trade  test,  as  well  as  the  general  intelli- 
gence test.  General  intelligence  tests  are  coming  into 
very  general  use  in  connection  with  school  systems  and 
are  furnishing  a  means  for  comparing  the  relative  accuracy 
of  teachers'  judgments.  So  much  material  is  in  print 
on  this  phase  of  testing  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  go  into 
detail.'  In  view  of  the  fact  that  up  to  date  school  tests 
have  been  based  almost  entirely  on  the  acquisition  of  a 
large  number  of  facts,  it  is  interesting  to  note  a  movement 

•  For  the  value  of  periodic  examinations  and  the  work  of  the  Life  Extension 
Institute  from  the  employer's  point  of  view,  see  Twentieth  Annual  Convention  of 
National  Association  of  Manufacturers,  New  York,  May  25,  26,  1915,  pp.  190  f. 

'  "Fatigue  Study,"  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 

"Papers  on  Fatigue,"  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Industrial  Engineers, 
1919-20. 

"Motion  Study  for  the  Handicapped,"  E.  P.  Dutton,  New  York. 

"The  Three  Position  Plan  of  Promotion,"  Annals  of  the  American  Academy, 
May,  1916.      (On  the  selection  of  employees.) 

Major  and  Mrs.  Gilbreth  are  also  pioneers  in  the  subject  of  "motion  study." 
I  was  pleased  to  learn  from  them  recently  that  they  are  hopeful  regarding  ultimate 
returns  on  efforts  to  perfect  tests  which  will  indicate  potential  abilities. 

'  One  of  the  most  recent  books  which  is  of  great  interest  is  "Classes  for  Gifted 
Children"  by  Dr.  Whipple  of  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  Public  School 
Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.,  1919. 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  141 

to  add  tests  which  will  determine  practical  abihty,  grasp 
of  fundamental  principles,  capacity  for  growth  and  fit- 
ness to  undertake  the  various  lines  of  training  required 
by  the  business  world.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  the 
recent  entrance  tests  offered  by  Columbia  University. 
Students  were  permitted  to  choose  between  the  old  aca- 
demic examination  and  the  newer  tests.  One  hundred 
and  eighty-seven  chose  the  old  and  200  the  new,  which 
required  (a)  a  school  record  on  moral  quaUties  and  (6)  a 
test  comprising  four  parts :  one  and  two  on  powers  of 
perception  and  observation,  three  and  four  on  applied 
cultural  knowledge. 

Trade  or  occupational  tests  are  tests  which  determine 
the  degree  of  training,  education,  and  experience  of  the 
applicant  —  acquired  rather  than  innate  ability.  They 
may  be  subdivided  into : 

a.  Technical  interviews  —  specific  questions  about  spe- 
cific elements ; 

h.  Pictures  and  blueprints ; 
c.  Demonstrations. 

Simple  tests  of  any  kind  which  reveal  abilities  may  be 
considered  a  legitimate  part  of  the  technical  interview  — 
tests  to  determine  alertness  and  courtesy  —  academic 
tests  to  determine  handwriting,  accuracy  in  mathematical 
processes,  spelling,  typing,  filing,  making  change,  etc. 
A  more  formal  series  of  questions  based  on  detailed 
job  analysis,  made  out  by  experts  to  be  used  in  testing 
applicants  who  advertise  to  be  experts,  is  also  termed  a 
technical  interview.  It  is  needless  to  state  that  such  in- 
terviews are  more  useful  in  adult  than  in  junior  placement 
offices  and  that  their  utility  anywhere  depends  upon  the 
use  of  a  technical  vocabulary,  universally  understood, 
and  questions  so  framed  that  exact  and  unmistakable 


142  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

answers  can  be  secured  by  an  examiner  who  has  httle 
knowledge  of  the  trade  ^  —  standardized  questions  based 
upon  concrete  knowledge  of  the  job.^  The  use  of  pictures 
and  blueprints  as  a  method  of  testing  is  self-explanatory, 
as  is  also  trade  demonstrations.' 

A  few  references  which  indicate  where  tests  which  have 
been  tried  out  by  business  houses  may  be  found  are  in- 
cluded in  footnotes.*  In  general  we  may  conclude  that 
the  use  of  mental  tests  is  already  recognized  as  a  part  of 
modern  employment  psychology  and  that  neither  employ- 
ment manager,  nor  public  employment  office  can  afford 
to  ignore  progress  in  devices  of  any  kind  which  tend  to 
contribute  to  the  selection  of  men  on  a  more  scientific 
basis.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  tendency  to  make 
psychological  tests  a  f^d,  to  use  them  indiscriminately, 
and  to  overlook  the  fact  that  they  are  a  dangerous  tool  in 
the  hands  of  untrained  men. 

a.  Psychological  tests  should  be  devised,  evaluated,  and 
prescribed  by  experts.  They  should  have  a  definite  pur- 
pose and  should  be  given  by  trained  men. 

h.  Psychological  tests  have  no  value  in  testing  appli- 
cants for  given  positions  unless  by  their  application  to 
present  occupants  of  the  same  positions  it  has  been  proved 

'  The  United  States  Employment  Service  made  a  very  definite  contribution  to 
the  scientific  development  of  technical  interviews  in  its  office  at  22d  Street  and 
Broadway,  New  York. 

'  "The  Descriptions  of  Occupations"  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics for  the  United  States  Employment  Service  are  of  great  assistance  in  job 
specifications. 

'  For  those  who  can  read  but  one  book  on  this  subject,  "Employment  Psychol- 
ogy," Link,  Henry  C,  Macmillan,  1919,  is  by  far  the  best  of  which  our  department 
has  knowledge.     It  should  be  known  to  everj-  student  of  employment  problems. 

*  Link,  Henry  C,  "Employment  Psychologj'." 

Cody,  Sherwin,  "Commercial  Tests  and  How  to  Use  Them,"  World  Book  Co., 
1919. 

Henderschott  and  Weakly,  "Employment  Department  &  Employee  Re- 
lations," La  Salle  Extension  University,  Chicago,  1918.  Chapter  on  "Vocational 
Laboratory." 

"Hiring  and  Firing,"  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company,  1918. 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  143 

that  they  are  an  accurate  guide  in  separating  the  success- 
ful from  the  unsuccessful. 

c.  There  is  no  particular  advantage  in  selection  by 
test  unless  there  is  a  definite  follow-up  system  which 
includes  an  estimate  of  the  ultimate  results  of  testing. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  education  and  employment  have 
much  the  same  problem.  When  education  selects  the 
wrong  boy  for  a  certain  line  of  vocational  training  and 
employment  agencies  select  the  wrong  boy  for  a  certain 
occupation,  the  result  is  much  the  same,  —  misfits,  drifters, 
unemployed,  unemployables,  social  unrest,  intellectual 
and  industrial  hoboes,  and  anarchy.  I  repeat  again,  when 
the  preventive  side  of  vocational  guidance  has  been  made  a 
definite  responsibility  of  the  educational  system  there  will  be 
less  corrective  guidance  for  employment  agencies.  Recently 
the  MetropoUtan  Life  gave  an  examination  for  clerical 
workers.  Seventy-five  per  cent  was  the  passing  grade. 
One  thousand  forty-three  were  tested  and  839  failed. 
These  839  failures  represent  the  type  of  applicant  who 
comes  to  public  employment  offices  seeking  corrective 
guidance.  The  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls 
operates  a  testing  bureau  in  which  grammar  school  pupils 
are  given  a  two  week  test  prior  to  graduation.  The  pur- 
pose is  to  give  pupils  some  idea  of  the  various  kinds  of 
work  for  which  they  may  prepare.  Such  tests  should  be 
regarded  as  preventive  vocational  guidance  —  to  prevent 
selection  of  the  wrong  lines  of  vocational  education. 

After  the  result  of  the  tests  is  known  and  the  occupation 
has  been  determined  upon,  there  is  still  a  sort  of  residuum 
of  need  which  good  interviewers  will  find  and  meet.  If 
this  be  the  young  wage  earner's  first  position,  she  may 
need  information  supplemental  to  that  acquired  in  school 
on  labor  legislation,  such  as  the  eight-hour  law,  minimum 
wage,  health  permits,  physical  examination,  etc.     If  the 


144  JUNIOR  WAGE   EARNERS 

position  involved  requires  dexterity  and  speed,  it  may 
be  that  a  little  assistance  in  determining  the  difference 
between  soldiering  and  speeding  in  relation  to  good 
steady  output  will  be  helpful.  It  is  sometimes  rather 
difficult  to  discuss  this  subject  with  factory  employees 
until  after  they  have  had  at  least  a  minimum  of  experience, 
but  counselors  can  ask  them  to  keep  a  record  of  their 
production  for  three  or  four  days  and  then  come  back 
to  the  office  to  talk  it  over.  If  the  daily  record  indicates 
speeding,  the  counselor  may  approach  the  subject  of 
volume  of  work  from  one  point  of  view;  if  it  indicates 
undergrade  work  it  will  be  handled  differently.  Of 
course  we  are  assuming  that  every  counselor  will  know 
just  what  a  daily  output  record  indicates,  interpreted 
in  terms  of  potential  success  or  failure.  Budget  making, 
including  habits  of  thrift,  wise  expenditure  of  money, 
etc.,  make  a  very  strong  appeal  to  those  who  are  about 
to  receive  their  first  wages.  Carelessness  in  the  use  of 
material  of  all  kinds,  pencils,  bags,  string,  paper,  etc., 
involves  an  overhead  expense  for  which  employees  are 
responsible.^  In  short,  the  expert  counselor  will  not 
close  her  interview  until  she  has  rendered  every  service 
which  her  own  experience  has  taught  her  will  increase 
the  apphcant's  chances  of  success.  If  the  applicant  be 
a  more  experienced  worker,  the  interview  may  have  re- 
vealed some  elements  of  weakness  or  of  strength  which 
will  indicate  how  it  will  be  possible  to  acquire  and  offer 
that  little  something  more  which  employers  do  not  include 
in  job  specifications  but  which  they  are  very  quick  to  recog- 
nize and  which  distinguishes  the  really  high  class  employee 
from  the  average  and  the  good. 

B.     The  Referral.     The  Junior  Division  of  the  United 
States  Employment  Service  does  not  refer  its  applicants 

>  The  waste  of  paper  bags  in  10-cent  stores  amounts  to  a  large  sum. 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  145 

as  average  boys  to  average  jobs,  but  as  individuals  selected 
to  fill  individual  positions.  At  the  completion  of  the 
interview  when  the  employer  has  been  selected,  an  intro- 
duction card,  accompanied  by  any  other  desirable  informa- 
tion, is  given.  Unless  there  be  regular  hours  for  inter- 
viewing applicants,  it  is  always  wise  to  telephone  the 
employment  manager  prior  to  a  personal  visit.  Occa- 
sionally a  position  will  have  been  filled  since  the  order 
came  to  the  service  or  an  appHcant  will  fail  to  meet  the 
manager  because  of  selecting  an  inconvenient  hour.  If 
for  any  reason  our  applicant  seems  to  us  to  be  either  above 
or  below  specification,  a  prospective  employer  should  be 
so  informed.  It  does  not  seem  wise  at  all  times  to  permit 
applicants  to  overhear  these  appointment  conferences  with 
employers.  The  counselor  may  step  into  another  room 
to  telephone  or  better  still  when  the  interview  is  completed 
she  may  ask  the  applicant  to  return  to  the  reception  room 
and  wait  untU  the  introduction  is  prepared. 

Who  is  the  referral  clerk?  The  counselor  or  a  second 
person  who  specializes  in  that  phase  of  employment 
service  ?  This  is  not  a  problem  either  in  the  one-person 
office  or  in  the  very  large  office,  but  sometimes  it  presents 
an  administrative  problem  in  the  average  office  placing 
from  50  to  300  juniors  per  week.  In  many  ways,  the  one- 
person  office  operates  under  ideal  conditions.  Information 
and  responsibility  for  its  effective  use  are  centralized  in 
one  person;  the  counselor  knows  both  employer  and 
applicant  personally  and  she  checks  up  on  the  value  of 
her  own  placements.  When  the  volume  of  work  is  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  enough  counselors  to  make  placement 
assignments  on  an  occupational  basis,  the  problem  again 
becomes  comparatively  simple.  A  reception-room  at- 
tendant may  conduct  a  preliminary  interview  and,  if  the 
appUcant  has  already  chosen  an  occupation,  refer  her  or 


146  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

him  directly  to  the  placement  clerk  for  that  occupation. 
If  the  applicant  has  not  chosen  an  occupation,  she  should 
be  referred  to  a  general  counselor  whose  main  function 
is  aiding  in  vocational  selection  and  who,  when  the  selec- 
tion has  been  made,  will  refer  her  to  the  proper  placement 
expert.  The  small  office  lying  between  these  two  extremes 
is  the  really  difficult  office  to  organize.  Upon  what  basis 
shall  the  50  to  300  placements  per  week  office  assign  its 
duties  among  the  members  of  its  corps  ?  Shall  a  counselor 
and  a  placement  clerk  work  in  pairs  —  the  counselor 
advising  all  applicants  and  the  placement  clerk  making 
all  referrals  —  or  shall  two  counselors  divide  the  applicants, 
each  counseling  and  referring  her  own  group?  If  the 
latter,  on  what  basis  shall  division  of  applicants  be  made 
—  occupations,  age,  or  sex? 

There  seem  to  be  many  advantages  in  working  in  pairs : 
(1)  Counseling,  to  be  of  value,  should  be  done  by  men 
and  women  who  combine  educational  and  industrial 
experience  and  whose  age  and  personality  is  such  that  they 
can  win  the  confidence  of  both  sexes,  as  well  as  of  parents 
and  teachers.  Their  advisory  work  really  includes  leader- 
ship in  methods  of  interpreting  and  handling  the  young. 
Married  women,  other  things  being  equal,  make  excellent 
counselors.  As  long  as  it  is  so  very  difficult  to  secure 
good  counselors,  economy  in  utilizing  the  few  who  can 
qualify  as  experts  seems  desirable.  (2)  Referral  clerks 
may  be  much  younger  and  have  had  much  less  experience 
with  life.  They  do  not  need  to  know  the  life  history  of 
appHcant,  nor  do  they  need  to  counsel  on  social-moral 
problems,  but  they  do  need  to  be  bright  business  women 
who  can  visualize  each  worker  in  the  position  to  which  she 
is  referred.  As  they  take  incoming  calls  and  deal  with 
employers  over  the  telephone,  a  pleasing  tone  of  voice 
and  ability  to  secure  the  most  information  in  a  short  time 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  147 

are  vital  factors  for  success.  (3)  Employers  object  to 
more  than  one  point  of  contact  —  they  like  the  same 
operator  to  take  every  call.  Usually  the  placement 
clerks  will  do  much  of  the  solicitation  and  follow-up  and 
this  gives  employers  an  opportunity  to  meet  them  per- 
sonally. (4)  If  the  referral  is  not  accepted,  the  applicant 
returns  directly  to  the  placement  clerk  who  knows  the 
type  of  position  for  which  she  is  prepared  and  refers  her 
again  without  taking  the  time  of  the  counselor.  The 
counselor  and  the  placement  clerk  work  very  intimately 
and  an  exchange  of  opinions  is  desirable  at  the  close  of 
each  day.  Many  details  secured  by  the  placement  clerk 
are  valuable  for  the  counselor  in  keeping  her  methods  of 
interview  up  to  date,  while  the  more  mature  abiUty  of  the 
counselor  which  is  demanded  in  reading  character  and  in 
interpreting  industrial  facts  is  an  asset  in  increasing  the 
experience  of  referral  clerks. 

The  one  great  disadvantage  in  working  in  pairs  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  it  affords  an  opportunity  for  divided 
authority  in  referral  and  hence  divided  responsibility  for 
results. 

C.  The  Placement.  Social  sciences  have  the  disad- 
vantage of  possessing  no  technical  vocabulary.  This  is 
one  of  their  great  handicaps  in  conducting  the  type  of  in- 
vestigations which  justify  their  claim  to  be  ranked  as 
sciences.  "  Placement  "  is  used  with  equal  frequency  and 
equal  legitimacy  to  indicate  either  the  entire  employment 
process  or  the  mere  mechanical  process  of  closing  the 
deal  between  the  applicant  and  the  employer.  Both  inter- 
pretations of  the  term  have  been  used  in  this  publication. 
In  the  main,  placement  has  been  used  to  indicate  all  the 
processes  involved  in  assisting  juniors  to  make  their 
occupational  start.  In  this  section  it  is  applied  to  one  of 
the  functions  of  the  employment  process  —  closing  the  deal. 


148  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

The  referral  has  been  made.  The  appHcant's  registra- 
tion card  and  the  employer's  card  are  clipped  together 
and  put  in  a  desk  basket,  or  a  file,  to  await  returns.  If 
the  employer  accepts  the  applicant  and  the  applicant 
accepts  the  position,  a  placement  has  been  made ;  if 
either  party  refuses  to  close  the  bargain,  so  far  as  numerical 
results  are  concerned,  the  process  of  employment  has  not 
advanced  beyond  the  referral  stage.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
referral  clerk  to  secure  the  results  of  her  effort  in  some  way. 
The  right  way  is  through  return  of  the  referral  card  upon 
which  the  employer  or  the  applicant  has  checked  "  Yes  " 
or  "  No."  Unfortunately,  this  method  of  securing  returns 
depends  for  success  upon  the  cooperation  of  outside  parties 
over  whom  the  employment  service  has  no  control.  If  the 
card  is  not  returned  within  24  to  48  hours,  then  it  becomes 
the  duty  of  the  referral  clerk  to  secure  the  information  in 
some  other  way  —  by  telephone,  by  letter,  or  in  person. 

If  a  placement  has  been  made  the  fact  is  so  recorded 
on  both  cards,  the  applicant's  and  the  employer's.  The 
cards  are  separated  and  placed  in  the  proper  file  and  a 
placement  is  recorded  on  the  daily  report.  If  no  place- 
ment has  been  made  the  cards  are  separated,  returned 
to  the  active  file,  and  the  process  repeated.  Returned 
referral  cards  are  filed,  alphabetically  or  by  date,  and 
offices  which  so  desire  may  maintain  a  separate  file  for  this 
purpose. 

Placement,  as  a  mechanical  process,  is  now  complete, 
but  placement  as  the  process  of  employment  cannot  be 
considered  complete  until  we  know  that  our  selective 
judgment  has  been  vindicated  —  until  we  are  sure  that 
we  have  two  satisfied  customers.  This  information  is 
obtained  through  the  final  process  of  employment  — 
Employment  Supervision,  or  Follow-up. 

D.    Employment    Supervision,    or    Follow-up.     Em- 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  149 

plo5Tnent  supervision  or  follow-up  comprises  two  distinct 
functions  :   research  functions  and  supervisory  functions. 
The  research  function  of  employment  supervision  is 
the  function  which : 

(1)  Helps  us  to  determine  the  effectiveness  of  our 
service  by,  a,  number  of  placements  relative  to  number 
of  referrals  —  number  of  apparently  satisfied  customers 
—  period  of  retention  —  percentage  of  annual  labor 
turnover,  and  h,  financial  expenditure  relative  to  qualita- 
tive and  quantitative  returns. 

(2)  Furnishes  statistical  and  other  data  from  which  to 
draw  scientific  conclusions  regarding  the  status  of  employ- 
ment, unemployment,  seasonal  employment,  under-em- 
ployment,  unemployables,  etc.,  and  the  progress  which 
is  being  made  in  the  solution  of  these  problems, 

(3)  Furnishes  vocational  information  needed  by  the 
schools  in  order  to  carry  out  their  part  of  the  vocational 
guidance  program  outlined  in  Part  II,  Chapter  III.  It  is 
through  this  phase  of  the  follow-up  program  that  we 
make  good  our  claim  that  "  Placement  is  the  Alpha  of 
Vocational  Guidance."  The  success  of  the  educational 
effort  toward  better  preparation  of  pupils  for  occupational 
responsibilities  depends  very  largely  upon  the  ability  of 
employment  offices  to  recognize  and  secure  facts  which 
are  of  educational  value,  and  to  make  them  available 
for  educational  purposes. 

The  number  of  placements  relative  to  the  number  of 
referrals  is  the  most  immediate  and  probably  the  best 
mechanical  standard  by  which  to  test  the  efficiency  of 
employment  offices.  Mere  volume  of  placement  as  a 
standard  might  easily  tend  to  increase  labor  turnover, 
hence  the  number  of  satisfied  customers,  the  period  of 
retention  of  positions,  and  the  percentage  of  annual 
turnover,  should  always  supplement  placement  statistics. 


150  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

Service  is  the  ultimate  test  of  any  employment  agency. 
Sometimes  service  begins  and  ends  with  the  interview ;  no 
placement  is  desired.  Sometimes  service  ends  with  deci- 
sion to  return  to  school,  and,  if  education  can  do  more  for 
the  applicant  than  industry,  then  efficiency  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  of  returning  to  school.  Again  service  may 
result  in  determination  to  retain  the  present  position  — 
if  this  means  ultimate  gain  then  service  is  indicated  by 
our  ability  to  help  the  applicant  to  see  it.  If  real  service 
has  been  rendered,  any  one  of  the  three  outcomes  men- 
tioned may  be  equally,  or  more,  advantageous  than  place- 
ment. For  this  reason,  we  are  including  on  our  National 
Junior  reports  —  Number  calling  for  consultation  only  — 
Number  returned  to  school  —  Number  advised  to  retain 
present  position.  Number  of  placements  alone  can  never 
be  a  satisfactory  test  of  the  efficiency  of  the  Junior  Division 
of  the  United  States  Employment  Service. 

Cost  per  placement  is  an  equally  unsatisfactory  basis 
upon  which  to  estimate  efficiency.  In  the  first  place 
there  is  a  great  variety  of  interpretations  to  be  placed 
upon  the  term  "  placement."  If  placement  means  the 
process  of  employment  including  guidance  in  selecting 
a  position  and  employment  supervision,  it  will  entail  far 
greater  expense  than  will  mechanical  placement  the 
details  of  which  can  be  transacted  over  the  counter.  If 
placement  statistics  include  a  large  number  of  common 
labor  or  group  placements  relative  to  the  number  of 
skilled  and  professional  workers,  then  the  average  cost 
per  placement  will  be  low.  If  the  bulk  of  the  placements 
be  skilled,  professional,  or  junior  —  all  requiring  private 
interviews  and  individual  attention  —  then  the  average 
cost  will  run  high.^ 

•  In  determining  accurate  placement  costs,  consideration  should  always  be 
given  to  the  modal  figure  or  unit  of  greatest  frequency  in  any  placement  group. 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  151 

It  has  been  assumed  that  pubHc  employment  agencies 
will  never  be  in  a  position  to  place  skilled  and  professional 
workers  satisfactorily  and  at  the  same  time  come  within 
the  cost  limits  allowed  by  appropriations  for  employment 
purposes.  Private  agencies  justify  their  existence  as 
public  servants  quite  largely  on  this  basis.  Comparison 
of  the  cost  per  placement  among  private  agencies  with  the 
cost  under  public  auspices,  as  well  as  comparison  of  the 
amount  which  public  appropriation  indicates  as  the  esti- 
mated cash  value  of  such  service  with  the  net  incomes  of 
privately  operated  agencies,  tends  to  support  this  assump- 
tion. There  are,  as  yet,  no  statistical  data  which  afford 
suflficient  basis  for  attempting  to  standardize  the  cost  of 
satisfactory  placements.  Private  agencies  serve  as  the  best 
guides  because  they  operate  on  a  commercial  basis  —  they 
must  give  satisfaction  in  order  to  keep  their  doors  open. 

The  cost  per  placement  in  public  offices  in  California 
in  1916  was  75^,  in  private  offices  $2.25.  In  Illinois, 
1917-18,  205,178  positions  were  filled  by  the  public  offices 
at  a  total  cost  of  $76,570  or  32|^  per  placement.  A 
recent  report  from  an  Employers'  Association  agency 
which  registered  skilled,  semi-skilled,  and  common  labor 
shows  an  average  of  67^  per  placement.     A  good  Y.  M. 

As  an  illustration,  suppose  the  data  register  the  following  placements :  300  mes- 
sengers, 10  clerks,  and  5  stenographers.  The  cost  of  such  an  office  is  J500.  The 
average  cost  per  placement  is  S500  divided  by  315,  or  $1.58.  However,  in  these 
figures  are  included  300  messengers,  the  modal  figure.  They  comprise  more  than 
95%  of  total  placements ;  require  little  or  no  skill  and  a  minimum  of  time.  Elim- 
inating these  or  giving  them  only  due  weight,  the  cost  per  placement  is  consider- 
ably higher  and  would  not  reflect  as  highly  efficient  an  organization  as  the  figures 
$1.58  would  seem  to  indicate.  Due  weight  should,  therefore,  be  given  to  group 
placements  or  modal  units  in  each  case  in  order  that  real  placement  cost  can  be 
accurately  determined. 

The  time  element  affords  a  more  accurate  index  of  placement  costs  but  its  methods 
are  still  too  uncertain  to  warrant  its  common  use.  Junior  offices  which  desire  to  co- 
operate with  the  National  Office  in  testing  methods  for  determining  the  occupational 
cost  per  placement  can  obtain  suggestions  and  forms  from  this  office,  and  their  co- 
operation will  be  welcomed. 


152 


JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


C.  A.  office  in  1919,  registering  clerical  and  sales  positions, 
operated  at  an  average  cost  of  $3.50  per  placement.  The 
private  agencies  in  Illinois,  in  1917-18,  filled  593,482  posi- 


o   "^ 

CALIFORNIA 

ILLINOIS 

Employers 
Ass'n 

Y.  M.  C.  A. 

Public 
Office 
1916 

Private 
Office 

1916 

Public 
Office 

1917-18 

Private 
Office 

1917-18 

( recent) 

1919 

$3.50 

3.00 

2.60 

2.00 

1.60 

1.00 

.60 
0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I 

Chart  showing  average  cost  per  placement  1916-19  by  various 
employment  offices. 

tions.  Their  net  income  is  not  available  but  their  list  of 
classified  agencies  permits  us  to  draw  some  conclusions : 

37,639  domestic  servants  paid  a  $2  fee,  total  $  75,278  ^ 
274,887  laborers  paid  a  $2  fee,  total       .     .     .     549,774 

In  other  words,  37,639  domestic  servants  paid  private 
employment  agencies  in  registration  fees  in  1917-18  ap- 
proximately the  same  sum  as  was  expended  by  public 
offices  for  the  placement  of  205,178  persons  in  positions 
of  all  types. 

'  Domestic  agencies  and  agencies  placing  common  labor,  charge  fees  of  $2 
to  applicant  and  $2  to  employer.  In  some  cases  this  double  fee  is  not  collected, 
hence  both  types  of  positions  have  been  estimated  at  the  $2  rate  only. 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  153 

The  value  of  such  statistics  is  questionable,  but  grant- 
ing their  validity,  what  an  awful  reflection  on  our  estimate 
of  the  economic  and  social  value  of  human  ability,  energy, 
and  skill !  Just  as  long  as  32|^^  per  capita  is  permitted, 
not  to  say  encouraged  and  applauded,  just  so  long  may 
we  expect  to  reap  our  reward  in  social  unrest  and  anarchy. 
Our  public  offices  do  not  yet  attract  the  cream  of  our 
labor  supply.  The  greater  part  of  their  task  is  the  place- 
ment of  the  disappointed,  the  discontented,  the  misfit, 
the  casual  laborer,  etc.  They  hold  a  strategic  position 
with  reference  to  unrest  and  anarchy.  Do  our  legislators 
realize  this?  Do  they  want  and  do  they  expect  these 
offices  to  be  operated  in  the  interests  of  stabilized  em- 
ployment? 32^^  per  placement  is  their  reply.  It  tells 
the  whole  story. 

If  the  present  estimate  of  the  appropriation  necessary 
for  operating  federal-state  employment  offices  coopera- 
tively were  to  be  indorsed  and  granted  by  Congress,  how 
much  more  nearly  would  the  public  expenditure  in  Illinois 
approach  that  of  the  private  agencies?  The  United 
States  Employment  Service  seeks  approximately 
$1,500,000  for  operating  its  share  in  a  service  equipped 
to  make  65,665  placements  per  week,  an  average  of  44 
cents  per  placement.  When  $1,500,000  is  shared  by 
the  various  states,  the  additional  amount  granted  the 
state  of  Illinois  —  probably  on  the  50-50  basis  —  would 
give  her  a  total  of  $150,000  for  operation  of  public  em- 
ployment offices.  It  costs  274,887  laborers  $549,774  to 
secure  the  same  type  of  service  from  private  agencies, 
and  the  sum  may  exceed  $1,000,000  provided  the  double 
fee  allowed  be  collected. 

Approaching  the  subject  from  a  slightly  different  point 
of  view  we  offer  a  complete  roster  of  positions  secured 
through  Illinois  private  agencies  in  1917-18. 


154 


JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 


Ttpe  of  Aqenct 

Positions  Secured 

Cost  to  EMPLOTKBa 

Theatrical     .     . 

.       167,457 

®  10%  of  salary  . 

. 

Domestic .     .     . 

37,639 

@  $2.00  or  $4.00  . 

.      $  75,278.00 

Barbers    .     .     . 

4,854 

Automobile  .     . 

4,966 

Hotel  .... 

10,532 

Labor  .... 

.      274,887 

@  $2.00  or  $4.00   . 

549,774.00 

Clerical     .     .     . 

34,043 

@  $2.00  and  up    . 

68,086.00 

General     .     .     . 

46,057 

Teachers  .     .     . 

3,694 

@  5%  of  salary    . 

. 

Engineering  and 

@  Percentage  of 

Technical  .     . 

1,376 

salary       .     . 

. 

Nurses      .     .     . 

7,977 

@  10%  of  salary  . 

•     . 

693,482 

The  private  agencies  in  Illinois  collected  a  larger  total  for 
service  to  593,482  applicants  than  the  federal  employment 
service  is  contemplating  for  service  to  all  wage  earners  of 
the  entire  United  States. 

Expenditure  of  large  sums  will  not  always  result  in 
efficiency,  but  if  public  offices  are  to  be  operated,  it  is 
well  for  those  who  are  responsible  for  their  operation 
to  have  at  least  a  general  understanding  of  the  expense 
which  should  be  involved  and  which  is  involved  in  offices 
under  private  control. 

The  educational  Council  of  the  International  Committee 
of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  has  recently  arranged  for  vocational 
guidance  and  placements  for  discharged  soldiers  and 
sailors.  Fortunately  for  the  organization  and  for  the 
young  men  who  are  to  receive  its  benefits,  Mr.  E.  W. 
Weaver  has  been  secured  to  organize  and  direct  the  move- 
ment. After  careful  study  of  such  material  as  could  be 
secured  as  a  guide  in  determining  the  necessary  cost  of 
scientific  employment  the  following  plan  was  adopted  :  ^ 

"The  local  Associations  which  are  prepared  to  give  to  applicants 
who  have  been  honorably  discharged  from  the  army,  navy,  marine 

>  Grants  were  available  January  1,  1920.  j 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  155 

service,  or  from  the  war  industries  assistance  in  planning  their 
futures,  are  to  receive  for  each  applicant  so  assisted  a  grant  of  S5. 
The  Associations  which  through  properly  organized  Employment 
Departments  place  such  applicants  in  positions  shall  be  reimbursed 
for  the  cost  of  this  service,  but  grants  for  this  purpose  shall  not 
exceed  $5  for  each  applicant  so  placed. 

"...  Careful  distinction  must  be  made  between  these  two 
kinds  of  service.  The  candidate  who  applies  to  the  employment 
office,  knowng  what  he  wants  and  being  prepared  for  the  kind  of 
work  which  he  expects,  is  to  be  considered  in  claiming  the  second 
grant.  Applicants  for  whom  well-defined  plans  are  made,  either 
in  the  way  of  preliminary  education  for  vocational  purposes,  or  in 
the  way  of  employments  for  apprenticeships  which  prepare  for 
promising  occupations,  may  be  considered  in  claiming  the  Occupa- 
tional Guidance  grants." 

The  plan  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  it  will  be  noted,  is  almost 
identical  with  that  advocated  by  the  Junior  Division  of 
the  Employment  Service.  The  distinction  between  voca- 
tional guidance  and  assistance  in  securing  a  position  is 
clearly  defined  and  the  relative  importance  of  the  two 
functions  evaluated. 

However  interested  we  may  be  in  securing  accurate 
data  on  number  and  cost  of  placements,  we  are  still  more 
interested  in  research  studies  which  wUl  point  the  way 
to  the  solution  of  the  great  social-economic  problems 
which  are  omnipresent  in  connection  with  public  employ- 
ment offices.  Junior  offices  have  the  best  opportunity 
+0  show  leadership  in  this  direction.  Whether  or  not 
they  will  have  the  ability  and  foresight  to  make  use  of 
their  opportunity  remains  to  be  seen.  The  14  to  16  year 
old  period  is  the  place  to  begin. 

For  a  decade  or  more  14  to  16  have  been  spoken  of  as 
wasted  years.  To  what  extent  can  this  claim  be  justified? 
If  there  be  waste,  how  much  and  how  can  it  be  prevented 
at  its  source?  Jacob  Riis  estimates  that  there  are 
8,000,000  men  in  this  country  who  began  their  wage- 


156  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

earning  career  below  the  efficiency  line  and  are  living 
below  it  for  their  entire  life.  Robert  Hunter  makes  the 
number  10,000,000.  Data  offered  in  support  of  their 
statements  permit  the  conclusion  that  every  14-year-old 
boy  who  leaves  our  public  schools  has  an  even  chance  of 
being  one  of  these  unfortunates.  One  of  the  functions  of 
an  employment  service  is  to  find  out  why  these  boys 
enter  industrial  life  below  the  efficiency  line  and  to  see 
that  their  chances  for  so  doing  are  reduced.  Part  of 
the  responsibiHty  will  go  back  to  education,  but  the 
fact  that  many  of  these  young  wage  earners,  who  are 
on  the  border  line  and  might,  by  proper  encouragement 
and  supervision  during  their  ffi-st  month  of  employment, 
be  made  permanent  contributors  to  production,  are,  by 
neglect  and  discouragement,  permitted  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion for  unemployment  and  unemployables,  is  a  problem 
for  employment  supervision.  The  mechanical  process  of 
placement,  or  even  the  entire  process  of  placement  com- 
pleted to  acceptance  of  a  position,  will  not  accomplish 
our  purpose.  Boys  and  girls  are  often  well  and  apparently 
satisfactorily  placed.  They  like  their  positions  and  mean 
to  meet  their  requirements  but  they  have  come  from 
homes  in  which  they  were  the  center  of  attraction,  from 
schools  where  every  act  was  supervised,  every  success 
praised,  and  every  failure  noted.  In  the  industrial  world 
they  are  the  youngest,  the  newest,  the  lowest  paid,  and 
the  least  essential  employees  in  the  estabUshment.  They 
cannot  understand  the  change.  They  are  resentful,  dis- 
couraged, or  indifferent  as  the  case  may  be,  and  the  closed 
accounts  of  industry  begin  to  compete  with  the  closed 
accounts  of  education.  A  series  of  facts  available  to  all, 
ignored  by  most,  and  known  to  a  few,  result.  At  the 
joint  session  of  the  American  Association  for  Labor 
Legislation  and  the  American  Association  on  Unemploy- 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  157 

ment,  December  28-29, 1914,  data  were  offered  to  indicate 
that  in  large  cities  one  fourth  of  all  the  boys  and  girls 
who  had  secured  labor  permits  were  always  unemployed. 
In  the  same  year  Mr.  Hiatt  submitted  data  indicating 
that  New  York  City  was  harboring  70,000  youthful 
floaters,  Chicago  30,000,  Boston  12,000,  and  Milwaukee 
6,000.  "  One  expert  in  the  study  of  these  conditions 
has  made  it  a  rule  of  thumb  in  average  industrial  cities 
of  20,000  and  up,  that  one  eightieth  of  the  total  popula- 
tion'will  be  found  to  be  these  14-  to  16-year  old  loafers  or 
untrained  workers."  ^  He  adds  that  in  the  year  preced- 
ing his  study  Philadelphia  spent  more  than  $1,500,000 
for  high  school  instruction  for  13,039  boys  and  girls  and 
nothing  for  the  13,742  between  14  and  16  who  were 
eliminated  from  school  and  employed.  Retardation  and 
elimination  in  school  is  paralleled  hy  juvenile  labor  turnover 
in  industry  —  these  are  two  factors  which  lie  at  the  bottom 
of  any  scientific  solution  of  the  problem  of  unemployment .^ 
Again  statistics  tell  us  that  from  10  per  cent  to  15  per 

'  England  long  since  traced  the  origin  of  its  unemployment  problem  to  neglect 
of  its  young  wage  earners.  In  1909,  boy  labor  was  cited  by  the  Royal  Commission 
on  the  Poor  Laws  as  "the  most  serious  of  the  phenomena  which  we  have  encountered 
in  our  study  of  unemployment."  It  was  further  pointed  out  "that  one  of  the  most 
prolific  sources  of  casual  labor  with  its  evil  of  chronic  underemployment,  is  the 
employment  of  boys"  in  occupations  which  leave  them  unemployables  at  manhood. 

Beveridge,  W.  H.,  "Unemployment  —  A  Problem  of  Industry,"  p.  212.  "In 
any  thoroughgoing  attack  upon  unemployment  there  must  be  included,  on  the  one 
hand,  the  better  guidance  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  choice  of  careers  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  extension  of  industrial  training."  "...  The  guidance  of  boys  and 
girls  in  the  choice  of  careers  means  simply  the  extension  of  labour  market  organiza- 
tion in  connection  with  the  schools.  It  means  substituting  for  the  haphazard 
entry  into  industrial  life  —  the  taking  of  the  first  job  that  offers  —  entry  informed 
by  wider  knowledge  of  possibilities  and  prospects.  Moreover,  in  order  to  bo 
effective  this  guidance  must  be  fairly  general.  It  implies  a  juvenile  Labour  Ex- 
change dealing  with  a  substantial  portion  both  of  the  supply  and  of  the  demand 
for  boys  and  not  one  starting  out  with  the  ideas  of  rigidly  prescribing  all  but  the 
best  employments.  No  general  effect  can  be  produced  by  sending  a  few  selected 
boys  to  the  best  employers  and  ignoring  all  the  other  employers.  The  latter  simply 
get  their  boys  in  other  ways;  the  evil  is  ignored  not  cured." 

'  A  good  discussion  of  thcjproblem  of  unemployment  is  found  in  Lescohier, 
Don  D.,  "The  Labor  Market,"  Macmillan,  1919. 


158  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

cent  is  a  fair  average  of  discharge  for  incompetency. 
Such  a  generaHzation  does  not  mean  very  much  in  the 
way  of  removing  incompetency  and  reducing  labor 
turnover.  The  Junior  Division  of  the  Employment 
Service  wants  to  know  what  kind  of  incompetency  —  it 
wants  all  the  facts  which  employment  managers  can  give 
relative  to  types  and  degrees  of  incompetency.     If  it 


< ■- 26,781    

* 

$1,500,000 
For  Instruction 
in  High  School 

1, 

m,   (Elimi 

14  -  It;  Y 
latud  from  Sch. 

For       . 
ol  .t  Eniploytdj 

* 13,039 X 13,7-12 

Chart  showing  number  of  boys  and  girls  provided  for  by  Philadelphia 
and  number  between  14  and  16  years  of  age  unprovided  for  that 
were  eliminated  and  employed. 

cannot  secure  this  information,  it  cannot  make  use  of 
educational  facilities  for  remedying  the  types  of  incom- 
petency which  are  within  its  power,  nor  can  it  overcome 
incompetency  due  to  its  own  errors  in  analyzing  and  advis- 
ing employers  and  applicants.  Employment  Managers 
need  this  information  themselves  in  order  to  assume 
industry's  responsibility  for  labor  turnover  and  to  remove 
its  causes.  What  is  the  matter  with  the  schools  and  the 
employment  office  that  so  many  are  branded  incompetent 
or  unsatisfactory?  What  is  the  matter  with  industry 
that  so  many  want  to  leave? 

The  types  of  responsibility  involved  in  the  supervisory 
function  of  follow-up  are  as  varied  as  are  the  social 
problems  involved  in  employment.  Such  problems  will 
probably  never  be  entirely  eliminated ;  surely  he  who  at 
the  present  time  advocates  their  elimination  betrays 
thereby  his  ignorance  of  the  employment  function,  his 
inability  to  grasp  the  interrelation  of  all  social-economic 
problems    and    his    unfitness    for    employment    service. 


A  JXJNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  159 

Systematic  employment  supervision  strikes  at  the  heart 
of  many  of  the  junior  problems.  If  it  be  conducted  by 
the  case  method  ^  it  is  bound  to  be  welcomed  by  the 
employer,  employee,  the  home,  and  the  school  and  it  is 
bound  to  become  a  powerful  factor  for  good  in  any  com- 
munity. 

(4)  Collection  and  dissemination  of  information  which 
will  help  the  schools  to  estimate  more  accurately  the  social 
and  economic  value  of  their  product  and  to  introduce 
such  curricula  changes  as  may  be  necessary  to  meet  the 
changing  demands  of  industry. 

Knocking  the  schools  is  one  of  our  favorite  national 
pastimes.  Sins  of  omission  and  sins  of  commission  vie 
with  one  another  in  providing  facilities  for  such  diversion. 
The  schools  with  great  endurance  and  rare  forbearance, 
make  no  effort  to  resist  the  knocks  and  by  their  silence 
are  assumed  to  have  assented  to  the  charge  that  they  do 
not  prepare  boys  and  girls  for  the  occupational  responsi- 
bilities of  life.^  It  has  long  been  obvious  that  the  educa- 
tional systems  either  could  not,  or  would  not,  uncover  and 
overcome  their  own  weaknesses.  And  still  it  is  most 
interesting  to  note  that  the  type  of  research  supervision 
which  indicates  educational  weaknesses  has  come  from 
within  as  well  as  from  without.  Dr.  William  McAndrew, 
Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  New  York  City, 
has  given  us  the  most  brilliant  presentation  of  the  failure 
of  the  elementary  schools  to  prepare  for  business  life. 

'  The  case  method  of  teaching  originated  in  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1871 
and  has  been  adopted  by  all  the  leading  law  schools  of  the  country.  Mrs.  Rich- 
mond was  the  pioneer  in  adapting  the  method  to  analysis  of  social  problems  and 
formulation  of  adequate  plans  for  their  treatment.  A  small  pamphlet,  "Social 
Case  Work  and  Better  Industrial  Conditions"  by  Shelby  M.  Harrison,  Russell 
Sage  Foundation,  1918,  is  worthy  of  a  place  in  any  library  covering  employment 
problems. 

2  In  a  recent  public  address  a  speaker  of  national  reputation  scored  his  educator 
audience  for  permitting  wholesale  condemnation  of  the  teaching  profession  without 


160  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

The  entire  pamphlet  is  so  valuable  that  it  is  useless  to 
quote  selections.  No  teacher,  or  counselor,  who  con- 
templates employment  supervision  can  afford  to  miss  its 
humor,  its  inspiration,  its  facts,  and  the  message  which  it 
carries  from  an  educator  to  educators.^ 

The  business  world  has  long  been  justifiably  dissatisfied 
with  the  type  of  commercial  education  which  is  afforded 
by  public  high  schools.  From  time  to  time  commercial 
organizations  have  protested  against  traditional  curricula 
which  excluded  the  subjects  and  forbid  the  methods  which 
were  most  needed  in  practical  life.^  They  have  resented 
applications  for  technical  positions  from  high  school  grad- 
uates who  brought  with  them  grades  of  "  good,"  "  fair," 
and  "  poor  "  when  it  is  well  known  that  modern  commer- 
cial tests  are  available  which  would  give  definite  infor- 
mation regarding  the  quality  of  technical  ability  possessed. 
Business  houses  have  often  led  in  the  introduction  of 
such  tests. 

A  number  of  commercial  surveys  have  been  made 
locally.  They  have  been  read.  Their  statements  have 
been  neither  refuted  nor  acted  upon.  The  Cleveland 
Survey,  the  Eaton-Stevens  Studies,  Mr.  Thompson's 
book  entitled  "  Commercial  Education  in  Public  Secondary 
Schools,"  and  the  returns  on  employment  supervision  in 
Seattle,  all  indicated  defects  in  present  commercial  educa- 
tion and  suggested  differentiated  courses  for  boys  and 
girls  if  the  logical  aim  of  conmiercial  education  were  to  be 
reaHzed.     We  now  have  a  national  study  which  confirms 

attempts  to  defend  it.  A  newspaper  editorial  commenting  on  the  same  passive 
acceptance  of  criticisms  says,  "teachers  grin  at  each  other  out  of  the  tails  of  their 
eyes"  when  their  work  is  criticized. 

«  McAndrew,  Wm.,  "The  Public  and  Its  Schools,"  World  Book  Co.,  1916. 

Section  II  of  the  "Seattle  Report,"  1913-16,  gives  a  brief  summary  of  our 
findings  through  the  medium  of  employment  service. 

'  Reports  of  National  Trade  Council,  Corporation  School  Curricula,  Chambers 
of  Conunerce,  etc. 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  161 

local  conclusions  and  substantiates  the  demands  of  the 
business  world.  Statistics  indicate  that  secondary  com- 
mercial education  has  no  definite  aim;  that  its  courses 
are  still  in  the  grip  of  tradition  and  many  features  are 
almost  static ;  that  its  methods  are  weak,  as  often  wrong 
as  right,  because  they  are  not  devised  to  accomplish 
definite  aims.  The  Report  suggests  that  guidance  for 
educators  in  reorganization  of  courses  is  possibly  the 
greatest  need.  It  concludes,  "  There  is  need  for  such  a 
quantity  of  evidence  and  for  such  evidence  for  every 
locality  as  will  make  the  objects  of  business  training  too 
apparent  to  be  overlooked."  ^ 

Immediately  following  this  national  survey  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education  announced  a  study  cover- 
ing 24  cities  in  order  to  determine  just  what  kinds  of 
commercial  positions  are  held  by  boys  and  girls  14  to  17 
years  of  age,  the  type  of  training  most  desirable  for  pres- 
ent positions  and  the  lines  of  promotion.^ 

Recognition  of  the  failures  of  education  and  the  type 
of  survey  mentioned  above  are  very  significant  for  the 
solution  of  the  practical  problems  of  the  Junior  Division 
of  the  Employment  Service.  Applicants  who  are  not 
trained  for  the  work  which  they  desire  will  be  dissatisfied 
workers  and  have  dissatisfied  employers.  Labor  turn- 
over and  corrective  vocational  guidance,  or  unemployables, 
result.  From  the  selfish  point  of  view,  if  from  no  other, 
every  junior  counselor  is  vitally  interested  in  helping  to 
make  commercial  education  courses,  or  any  other  school 
courses,  as  efl&cient  and  as  practical  as  is  possible.  Much 
of  the  information  which  vocational  surveys  seek  is  in 
the  employment  service  files.     It  is  rapidly  increasing  in 

1  Lyon,  Leverett  S.,  "A  Survey  of  Commercial  Education  in  the  Public  High 
Schools  of  the  United  States,"  University  of  Chicago,  1919. 

'"The  Vocational  Summary,"  March,  1920,  outlines  this  survey  and  lists  the 
cities  included. 
M 


162  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

quality  and  quantity  and  it  has  the  advantage  of  being 
available  through  a  national  centralized  department. 
Securing  and  furnishing  educational  agencies  data  which 
permit  them  to  so  plan  and  execute  the  curricula  that 
applicants  come  to  employment  offices  prepared,  not  for 
something,  but  for  something  which  business  wants,  which 
they  want  to  do  and  which  they  know  how  to  do,  is  the 
Alpha  of  Vocational  Guidance. 

(5)  Forecasting,  in  sorfar  as  is  possible,  changes  in  indus- 
trial methods  or  the  enactment  of  legislation,  which  will 
have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  number  and  type  of  oppor- 
tunities open  to  junior  employees. 

The  statement  is  made  on  Mr.  Weaver's  authority 
that  between  1900  and  1910  there  were  19,000  girls  in 
New  York  City  who  were  eliminated  from  industry 
because  of  legislative  or  industrial  changes  and  that  there 
were  in  all  about  30,000  juniors  who  did  not  realize  that 
social  and  economic  changes  were  making  it  harder  for 
them  to  find  employment. 

Six  years  of  experience  with  minimum  wage  and  eight- 
hour-for-women  legislation  has  provided  an  experience 
in  forecasting  the  results  of  such  legislation  which  is  of 
invaluable  service  in  industrial  placements.  The  probable 
and  possible  industrial  change  which  will  follow  the  enact- 
ment of  legislation  is  a  factor  which  every  employment 
office  should  be  able  to  analyze  and  for  which  it  should 
be  prepared.  Variations  in  influence  on  juniors  of  either 
sex  are  determined  largely  by  the  general  industrial 
conditions  throughout  the  country.  If  the  labor  supply 
be  abundant,  boys  over  18  years  of  age  whose  wage  is 
regulated  by  supply  and  demand  can  be  employed  at  a 
lower  rate  than  girls  whose  wage  is  regulated  by  law. 
The  employment  office  will  pool  a  large  supply  of  female 
help  for  which  it  will  be  impossible  to  create  a  demand 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  163 

at  the  legislated  wage.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  labor 
supply  be  not  abundant,  boys  over  18  will  be  employed  in 
other  and  higher  paid  lines  and  age-sex  competition  eon- 
trolled  by  the  difference  in  industrial  and  legislated  wage 
will  be  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

Employment  supervision,  which  transfers  juvenile 
workers  to  junior  work  as  they  approach  the  age  when 
they  should  become  estabhshed  as  permanent  workers, 
has  been  and  always  will  be  important,  but  wherever 
legislative  enactment  provides  that  adult  wages  be  re- 
ceived at  18  years  of  age,  it  becomes  doubly  so.  Offices 
operating  in  states  which  have  enacted  minimum  wage 
legislation,  especially  if  there  be  also  an  eight-hour  law 
for  women  and  not  for  men,  should  keep  a  careful  record 
of  all  placements  under  18  and  should  seek  the  coopera- 
tion of  employers  in  seeing  that  each  individual  worker 
reaches  the  efficiency  standard  necessary  to  receive  the 
adult  minimum.  If  the  occupation  be  a  juvenile-em- 
ploying industry,  offices  should  see  that  a  transfer  be 
effected  and  a  younger  worker  be  supplied  to  fill  the 
position. 

Constant  repetition  of  apprenticeship  is  another  problem 
which  accompanies  the  enactment  of  wage  legislation. 
There  are  girls  whom  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  keep 
employed  under  any  legislated  wage,  but  half  the  battle 
is  won  if  there  be  an  opportunity  to  anticipate  and  pre- 
pare for  change. 

The  introduction  of  labor-saving  machinery  is  another 
industrial  factor  in  change  which  is  vital  to  employment 
offices.  When  an  office  is  once  well  and  favorably  known 
in  its  community,  employers  will  usually  notify  in  advance 
when  they  contemplate  introduction  of  labor-saving 
devices  which  will  release  workers.  It  is  not  uncommon 
for  employment  managers  to  take  the  initiative  in  assisting 


164  JUNIOR  WAGE  EARNERS 

counselors  to  provide  for  reabsorption  of  all  released  em- 
ployees prior  to  the  date  of  release. 

(6)  To  bring  back  under  educational  influence  boys  and 
girls  to  whom  future  educational  service  can  be  rendered. 

(7)  To  cooperate  with  other  agencies  in  such  a  way  that 
duplication  of  effort  and  service  may  be  avoided. 

Education  is  a  continuous  process.  Vocational  Guid- 
ance is  a  continuous  process.  No  worker  can  be  at  his 
best  unless  education  be  a  constant  factor  in  his  daily  life. 
To  every  placement  office  there  will  come  boys  and  girls 
similar  to  those  mentioned  on  page  93.  If  their  expe- 
rience has  indicated  that  further  education  offered  by  any 
local  agency  would  be  of  vocational  assistance,  this 
information  should  be  in  employment  offices,  and  its  dis- 
semination should  be  regarded  as  a  legitimate  function 
of  the  service.  If  the  mechanical  act  of  placement  be 
considered  the  final  step  in  Vocational  Guidance,  then 
this  opportunity  for  service  will  be  lost.  Logically  it  is 
the  Omega  of  Vocational  Guidance. 

Placement  is  the  main  function  of  any  employment  system. 
Counter  placement,  without  effort  to  analyze  positions  or 
appHcants,  is  job  hunting.  There  is  nothing  scientific 
about  it  and  there  never  will  be.  It  has  been  going  on 
for  years  and  has  made  no  contribution  to  the  solution 
of  the  labor  problem  and  it  never  will.  It  begins  nowhere 
and  ends  nowhere.  Vocational  Guidance  is  not  in  its 
vocabulary  nor  are  Vocational  Guidance  functions  within 
its  comprehension.  Placement  which  is  accompanied 
by  that  type  of  employment  supervision  which  accumu- 
lates data  from  practical  fife  for  the  advancement  of  edu- 
cation and  guarantees  its  appUcants  constant  advice  and 
assistance  until  they  have,  through  all  the  available  chan- 
nels, reaUzed  their  best  possibilities,  is  both  the  Alpha  and 
the  Omega  of  Vocational  Guidance.    It  is  scientific  and 


A  JUNIOR  EMPLOYMENT  OFFICE  165 

will  become  progressively  so.  It  is  capable  of  making 
valuable  contributions  to  the  solution  of  the  labor  prob- 
lem, and  properly  supported  and  organized,  it  is  bound 
to  do  so.  It  begins  with  the  schools  and  ends  with  all 
possible  service  toward  a  successful  vocational  Ufe,  and 
it  cooperates  with  every  other  agency  interested  in  com- 
munity welfare. 


INDEX 


Advertising,  131,  133 

American     Association     of     Labor 

Legislation,  157 
American    Association    of    Unem- 
ployment, 157 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  61 
Applicants,  92,  93,  106 

card,  106,  148 

classification,  92,  93 

file,  106,  148 

interview,  129,  131,  135,  143,  144 

methods     of     approaching     em- 
ployers, 84,  85,  87,  88 

referral,  88,  107,  145 

refusal  of,  85,  86,  139,  147 
Application  blanks,  138 
Apprenticeship,  26,  121,  163 
Army  Trade  Tests,  109 
Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae, 

43,  61 
Association  of  Commerce,  51 

Bibliographies  on  vocational  guid- 
ance, 36 

"Blind  alley,"  120 

Board  of  Education,  43 

Boston,  vocational  guidance  and 
placement,  36,  43,  45,  59 

Boys'  Working  Reserve,  37,  64 

Branch  offices,  104,  128 

Brooklyn,  36,  49 

Bureau  of  Education,  61 

Bureaus  of  vocational  guidance,  37- 
49 

Business  organizations,  35,  56,  160 

Centralization  of  supply  and  de- 
mand, 39,  51,  101,  no,  112, 
113,  126,  127,  131 

Character,  21,  22,  23,  28,  29,  72, 
74,  99,  115,  141 


Charts,  5,  9,  10,  43,  58,  70,  71,  118. 

119,  152,  158 
Chicago,  37,  60 

vocational  guidance  in,  51,  62 
women's  clubs,  51,  52 
Children's  Bureau,  6,  11 
Cincinnati,  31 

vocational  bureau  in,  52,  53,  54, 
56 
Cleveland,  57,  59 
Clubs  —  boys  and  girls,  38 
Columbia  University,  141 
Commercial  education,  18,  20,  160, 

161 
Compulsory  education,  15,  44 
Consultation  room,  105 
Consumers'  League,  57 
Continuation   schools,    18,   26,   44, 
91,  102,  107,  113,  117,  121,  137 
Cooperative  agreements : 

education  and  employment  ser- 
vice, 18,  19,  20 
education  and  industry,  102,  124, 
130 
Corporation  schools,  124 
Cost  per  placement,  150,  151,  152 
as  test  of  efficiency,  150 
private  offices,  153,  154 
public  offices,  151,  152 
value  of  statistics  on,  153 
Counselors : 

duties  of,  125,  137,  138,  144,  145, 

146,  160 
requirements  for,  17,  18,  32,  33, 
95,  96,  146,  147 
Cross-indexing,  107 

Davis,  J.  B.,  64 
Department  of  Labor,  35 
Desk  and  equipment,  105,  106 
Director  General  Employment  Ser- 
vice, 65 


167 


168 


INDEX 


Economic  pressure,  12,  15 
Education,  22,  23,  24 

and  supervised  work,  117,  124 

group  system,  15,  32,  33 
Educational : 

agencies,  35,  37,  66 

files,  107 

guidance,  18,  39 
Educational  courses  —  general,  18, 
72,  78 

in    vocational    information,    80, 
84 
Eight-hour  legislation,  162 
Elimination,  31,  33 

from  industry,   16,   93,  94,   156, 
157,  162,  163 

from  school,  12,  13,  15,  16,  17, 

93,  94,  136,  137.  166,  169 
of  fatigue,  140 

Employers : 

file,  107,  148,  149 

interview  with,  131,  145 

orders,  107,  130 
Employment,    a    constructive   fac- 
tor in   education,  69,  72,  122 
Employment  agencies,  33 

philanthropic,  36,  37,  46,  63,  92 

private,  20,  21,  35,  47, 48,  151, 155 

pubUc,  21,  22,  46,  59,  92,  151,  155 
Employment  certification,    12,  40, 
51,  52,  102,  125,  126,  137,  140 
Employment  legislation,  69,  162 

in  Indiana,  60 

in  Kansas,  60 

in  Massachusetts,  59 

in  Missouri,  60 

juvenile  in  New  York,  50,  60 
Employment     managers,     96-101, 

133,  142,  145,  158 
Employment  methods,  26,  27,  91- 

94,  143,  144 
Employment  offices,  junior,  101 

adult  combined,  60,  103,  104 
arrangement  of,  101 
branch,  104,  128 
equipment,  105,  106 
functions  of,  93,  94,  112,  165 
hours  of  service,  110,  111 
location  of,  102,  103 
sex  separation,  103 
signs  in,  104 


Employment  psychology,  142,  143 
Employment  service,  20,  31,  61 
Employment   supervision,    29,    30, 
91,  92,  120,  121,  122,  124,  125, 
142,   143,   160,   169,    160,   163, 
164 
research  functions  of,  99,  149,  156 
value  of  systematic,  91,  92,  143, 
144,  166,  157 

Fatigue  elimination,  140 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Edu- 
cation, 4 
Files: 

active,  106,  148,  149 

applicants',  106,  148,  149 

educational,  107 

employers',  107,  148 

follow-up,  107,  148,  149 

letter,  107,  108 

placement,  107 

school  record,  107 

suggestion,  106 
Filing  system,  106-108 
Fletcher,  Alfred  P.,  59 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  77 

Gilbreth,  Frank  B,  140 

LilHan  M.,  140 
Grand  Rapids,  36 
Guidance : 

educational,  18,  37,  38,  72,  122, 
149,  159 

in  continuation  schools,  122 

in  evening  schools,  21 

occupational,  35,  73,  83,  84,  149, 
150 

testing  results  of,  41,  42 

vocational,  38,  65,  73,  84 
GuUck,  Luther  D.,  16,  17,  18 

HaU,  W.  E.,  64 

High   schools,   91,    117,    121,    167, 
160 
placement  in,  39,  40,  48,  127 

Illiterates,  10,  92 
Index  —  occupational,  107 
Indiana,     employment     legislation 
in.  60 


INDEX 


169 


Industry : 

elimination  from,  16,  31,  33,  93, 

44,  156,  157,  162,  163 
opportunities  in,  25,  99,  113,  117, 

118,  120 
Interviews,  105,  131,  139 
length  of,  138,  151 
method  of  conducting,  133,  134, 

137,  138,  144 
technical,  138,  141,  142 
with    applicant,    106,    128,    129, 

135,  145 
with  employers,  131, 132, 145,  146 

Job  analysis,  129,  141,  142 
Junior    Division,    U.    S.    Employ- 
ment Service,  8,  20,  21,  25,  33, 

59,  60,  65,  69,  130,  145,  150, 
155,  158 

character  of  work  of,  64,  65,  92, 
93,  110,  111,  129,  130,  134,  135 

cities  cooperating  with,  64,  66 

number  served  by,  5,  7,  8,  9,  10 

organization  of,  63,  65 

purpose  of,  6,  7,  19,  20,  63,  64, 
65,  92,  93,  111,  134,  135 

success  of,  65,  135,  150 
Junior  wage  earners : 

economic  pressure  and,  12,  15 

educational  status,  11,  12,  16 

elimination  from  industry  of,  16, 
21,  22,  29,  30,  156,  157,  162 

elimination  from  school  of,  10, 
12,  14,  15,  17,  136,  137,  158 

home  conditions,  11,  12 

industries  entered,  25,  26,  120, 
162,  163,  164 

influence  of  work  on,  125 

methods  of  securing  employ- 
ment, 25,  29 

number  of,  5,  6,  8,  9,  10 

parentage  of,  9 

supervision  of,  29,  30,  91,  92.  120, 
121,  122,  124,  125,  142,  143, 
150,  159,  160,  163,  164 

types  of,  14,   15,  46,  49,  92,  93, 
99,  114,  127,  156,  157 
Juvenile  employment,  124 
Juvenile  wage  earners,  4,  8,  17,  18, 

60,  61,  120,  121,  122,  156,  157, 
163 


Kansas,  60 

Knights  of  Columbus,  61 

Labor: 

certificates,  41,  52,  53,  102,  125, 

126,  136,  137,  139,  140 
Secretary,  65 

supply   and    demand   centraliza- 
tion of,  39,  51,  101,  110,  112, 
113,  126,  127-131 
turnover,  14,  15,  19,  20,  29,  30, 
94,  96,  100,  130,  137,  139,  149. 
158,  162 
Laboratory,  testing.  108,  109 
Leavitt,  F.  M.,  14.  25.  31,  116 
Legislation,  30,  113 

compulsory  attendance,    15,    18, 

41 
eight  hour,  144.  162 
emplojTnent,  144 
minimum  wage,  121,  162 
prohibitive,  122,  123 
Letter  file,  106,  107,  108 

Manhattan  Trade  School,  50,  143 
Massachusetts  vocational  guidance 

legislation,  59 
Mdndrew,  Dr.  William,  160 
Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany, 143 
Milwaukee,  25 

Minimum  wage,  121,  162,  163 
Minneapolis : 

Department  of  Vocational  Guid- 
ance, 41,  42 
Director    of    Vocational     Guid- 
ance, 41,  42 
progress  of  vocational  guidance, 

41,  42 
success  of,  41,  42 
vocational  survey,  60 
Missouri,  60 

National  Association  of  Corpora- 
tion Schools,  27,  56.  61,  74 

National  Association  of  Employ- 
ment Managers,  56 

National  Association  of  Public  Em- 
ployment Offices,  57 

National  Child  Labor  Committee,  9 


170 


INDEX 


National     Education    Association, 
61 

National   Federation   of   Women's 
Clubs,  61 

National    League    of    Compulsory 
Education  Officials,  127 

National  Society  Promotion  Voca- 
tional Education,  37 

National  Vocational  Guidance  As- 
sociation, 36,  61 

New  York  City : 

public  school  placement,  49,  50, 

61 
value  of  philanthropic  agencies, 
60 

O'Brien,  Francis  P.,  13,  15 

Occupations : 

information  classes  in,  80,  91,  98, 
150 

legitimate,  134,  135 

open  to  juveniles,  25,  26, 117, 118, 
120,  162,  164 

testing,  83 
Odencrantz,  Louise,  50 
Office  attendants,  133,  134,  145,  146 
Office  location,  101 

junior,  102,  103,  104,  126,  127 

juvenile,  101,  102 
Office  superintendents,  94-97 
Omaha,  43 

Parsons,  Frank,  36 

Part-time  pupils,  113,  117,  137 

Personality,  85-88,  132,  133,  146 

of  jobs,  97,  132 
Personnel : 

of  business  houses,  99,  100,  132 

of  public  employment  offices,  94, 
95,  96,  112 
Personnel  records : 

character  of  school,  22 

difficulty  in  obtaining,  23 

object  of,  21,  22 

use  of,  127,  136 
Philadelphia,  64,  157 
Philanthropic  agencies,  35,  36,  50, 

63,  92 
Physical  tests,  140 
Pittsburgh,    25,   31,   64,    116,    130, 
137 


Placement : 

by  public  schools,  37,  38,  41,  42, 

43,  45-50,  127-128 
cost  per,  150,  155 
files,  107-108 
location  and  equipment  of  office, 

101 
of  appUcant,  84,  89,  91,  92,  125 
meaning  of,  147,  164,  165 
methods,  125,  149 
public  employment  offices,  41,  57, 

92,  93,  94 
statistics  on,  9,   10,   43,  45,  58, 

150 
Placement  bureaus  in  schools,  37, 

39,  41,  42,  47,  48 
limitation  of  registration  in,  40, 

41,  48,  49  I 

success  of,  40,  41,  42,  48,  49,  126, 

127 
volume  of  work  in,    40,  41,  42, 

48,  49,  126-127 
Private  employment  agencies,   20, 

21,  35,  45,  48,  151,  155 
Providence,  9,  26,  64 
Psychological  tests,  140-141 
Public  emplojTnent  offices,   21,  22, 

46,  57,  59,  61,  92,  94,  101,  111, 

142,  151,  155 
character  of,  57,  94,  101 
requirements  for  success,  94 

Reception    room,     104,     132,     133, 

146 
Recommendation  blanks,  115 
Records : 

employment,  107,  108,  127,    148, 
149,  150 

school,  22,  25,  127,  128 
Reed,  Anna  Y.,  12,  15,  64 
Referral : 

by  counselors,  107,  145 

mechanics  of,  107,  146 

records  of,  107,  148 
Refusal  of  applicants,  85,  86,  139, 

147 
Replacements,  128,  139 
Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.,  36 

Salesmanship,  72,  84,  85,  136,  137 
Saturday  workers,  113,  117,  121 


INDEX 


171 


School : 

attendance  departments,  40 

grading  system,  23,  24,  112,  113, 
140,  141,  160 

number  attending,  4,  7,  8,  9,  10, 
26,  158 

population,  4,  158 

records.  32,  107, 108,  114, 115, 160 
School  elimination,  13,  15,  16,  17 

amount  of,  11,  12,  24,  28,  159 

reason  for,  9,  12,  15 

reports  on,  9,  34,  114,  158 
Schools,  private,  commercial,  20 

employment  departments,  19 

positions  secured  by,  20,  21 

type  of  pupils,  19,  21 
School  system : 

cooperation    with     Employment 
Service,  57,  63,  64,  69,  72 
"Scouting,"  27,  28 
Seattle,  34,  40,  78,  114,   115,   116, 

161 
Secretary  of  Labor,  65 
Self-analysis,  25,  75-78,   114,   115, 

122 
Social  agencies,  50,  107 
Social  workers,  95 
South  Bend,  64 
"Speeding,"  144 
St.  Louis,  38 
State  employment  service,  50,  59, 

61,  63 
Students'  aid,  37,39,  117,  118,  121 
Student  wage  earners,  38 

importance  of,  117,  118,  122 

problems  of,  118,  120 
Supervised  study,  118,  124 
Supervised  work,  118,  124 

Teachers,  22,  24,  81,  82,  84,  87,  88, 
90,  114,  115,  136,  137,  140,  160 
Technical  interview,  110,  142 
Telephone,  108,  132,  145,  147,  148 
Tests : 

Army,  109 

business,  142,  143,  144 

dangers  in  using,  142 

general  intelligence,  140,  141 

laboratory  for,  108,  109 

of  occupations,  83 

physical,  52,  140 


psychological,  52,  142,  144 
technical  interview,  110,  142 
trade,  110,  111,  142 
value  of,  136,  137,  139,  140 
Transfer     system      in      placement 
offices,  126,  127 

Unemployables,  7,  30,  92,  93,  139, 

143,  149,  156,  162 
Unemployment : 

amount  of  junior,  27,  28,  30,  31, 

149,  156,  157 
compensation,  156,  157 
U.  S.  Employment  Service,  34,  60, 
65,  109 

Vacation  workers,  113,  117 
Vocational  guidance : 
agencies  offering,  35 
bibliographies  of,  36 
centralization  of,  39,  51,  56,  57, 

58,  59 
corrective,  125,  142,  143,  162 
functions  of,  38,  39,  84 
importance  of,  78,  79 
limitations  by  schools,  40 
organizations  interested  in,  35 
origin  of  movement,  34,  36 
preventive,  121,  125,  142,  143 
progress  of,  35,  37,  65 
public  school  departments,  36 
scope  of,  37,  39,  50,  51,  69,  72 

Vocational  information,  58,  72 
character  of  course  in,  80,  91,  98, 

150 
importance  of,  80 
place  in  schools,  91,  128,  129,  142, 

143,  150 
responsibility  for,  77,  78,  91 

Vocational  placement,  38 

Vocational  training,  19,  83,  91,  161 

Weaver,  E.  W.,  36,  49,  154 

WooUey,  Helen  T.,  31 

Women's  Clubs,  51 

Work  —  influence  on  juniors,  123, 

124 
Work  room,  109 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  61,  104,  154,  156 
Y.  M.  H.  A.,  61 
Y.  W.  C.  A..  61 


Printed  in  the  United  Btatea  of  Ameriea. 


OCT  3       1920' 

"£a  8     1530 


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FEB  6 


MAY  4     1936 

RECEIVEb 

SEP  16  1983 

tirtC.  DERT.  URii 

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